Chapter 98: WAR AND PEACE

INTRODUCTION

THE twentieth century may go down in history as the century of war and peace—the first in which world wars were fought, the first in which men established world peace, and so, perhaps, the last in which peace among nations was merely an armed truce, a breathing spell between wars. Even if world peace is not actually begun in our time, we may prove to be the first generation of men on earth who, under the impact of world wars, have made a firm attempt to draw a decisive conclusion from all the accumulated wisdom concerning war and peace.

It may be thought that antiquity anticipates, and that at all times the tradition contains, the fundamental notions which have recently gained so wide a currency. Socrates and Epictetus, for example, speak of world citizenship. Marcus Aurelius and Zeno the Stoic even more explicitly envision a world community. Alexander tries to conquer the world to make it one; Virgil proclaims a peace which will be as universal as the Roman empire; and Dante, recasting Virgil’s vision, advocates the re-enactment of that empire and with it monarchy—by which he means one government—to give all Christendom political as well as spiritual unity.

To neglect these anticipations would be to overlook wisdom’s perennial aspirations for unity. But if, because of their significance for peace, they should not be neglected here, neither should their importance be exaggerated. For one thing, man has always acted at variance with his wisdom, nullifying the hope of peace by preparing always for the next war. For another thing, it is doubtful that peace by conquest or by empire—the only ways in which the past could conceive the world’s coming to the unity of peace—would be a peace perpetual as well as universal. The latter without the former is but a fraction of the ideal.

Even when in modern times the ideal is at last stated in terms of peaceful methods for achieving peace—by law, not by force; by consent, not by imposition—something less than the whole world in its global reality is the object of consideration. William Penn and Rousseau, for example, state the indispensable legal conditions for turning Europe from a continent perpetually wracked by wars into a society able to perpetuate peace, but their historical location causes them to limit their proposals to Europe.

Kant alone first makes the generalization which lies dormant in their reasoning, and which almost begs to be inductively drawn from the conceptions of war and peace so plainly stated by Hobbes and Locke. He conceives the possibility of a peace not only perpetual but truly world-wide. Yet for all the rightness he perceives in what he calls “the cosmopolitical ideal,” it seems to remain for him an ideal—not attainable except by approximation. Yet because it is right, he holds that it must be pursued even though it is impossible. We are the first generation to argue for world peace as a conclusion on the level of reality and to conclude that it is possible because it is necessary.

The argument is not yet won, nor the conclusion enacted, but henceforth the problem of war and peace can hardly be discussed without stating the issue as a choice of world government and peace, or of world anarchy and war. If it does no more than seriously face that choice for the first time, the twentieth century makes a signal advance in understanding one of the great ideas—an advance which can change the course of history and the life of man more than the discovery of atomic fission, which is only an instrument of war or a tool of peace. But just as the release of heat and energy from nuclear combustion has its prototype in ordinary fire, which the ancients associate with the beginning of civilization, so the insight which may exert a new civilizing force has its origin in the fundamental thinking man does about war and peace as soon as he begins to think about society.

IN THE TRADITION OF the great books, war and peace are usually discussed in political terms, or at least in terms of the relation of men to one another, individually or in groups. But the psychologist, the moralist, and the theologian sometimes use the word “peace” in another sense to signify the absence of conflict within the individual or to signify an inner harmony—peace of mind on earth or the heavenly rest of the blessed in the presence of God.

In their spiritual meanings, war and peace are considered in other chapters; e.g., interior conflict is a topic in the chapter on OPPOSITION and interior peace is discussed in the chapter on HAPPINESS. We shall not treat these matters here except in their bearing on the social or political discussion; nor shall we consider civil war except for the light it throws on the nature of war and peace in general. The special problem of discord and strife within a single community belongs to the chapter on REVOLUTION.

Certain attitudes toward war between states seem to recur in every century. In the face of the ever-present fact of war, men deplore its folly or find some benefit to compensate for its devastation. But throughout most of the tradition, those who see only suffering, no less than those who celebrate the martial spirit, seem to accept the necessity of war. Good or bad, or a mixture of the glorious and the horrible, war seems, to most of those who write about it, an inevitable thing—as ineradicable as disease and death for the living body, as inescapable as tragedy. Only in recent times has the inevitability of war been questioned, and the possibility of lasting peace proposed.

The two books which look most steadily and searchingly on the face of war—Homer’s Iliad and Tolstoy’s War and Peace—seem to behold it as a mixed thing. Battle with sword and javelin on the plains of Troy or with musket and howitzer on the Russian steppes lets loose a fury which sweeps human nature to extremes of nobility and baseness, to actions of heroic strength and cringing weakness. To both Homer and Tolstoy, war is the realm of force and chance, and though both see in it occasions for courage and magnanimity and even for a kind of charity or at least compassion, the whole spectacle is one of agony, pervaded by darkness and dismay, torn bodies and ruined minds. “Grievous war” is Homer’s repeated epithet. “Pale fear” and “black death” are the colors of battle. They are everywhere that Ares reigns, “Ares, blood-stained bane of mortals,” “stubborn god of war.”

To the poet of any century, Homer or Tolstoy, Virgil or Shakespeare, war’s human features appear to be unchanged even if its mechanical dress and physical lineaments are altered—its weapons and armor, its organization of men and materials, its scope of operations in space and time. The historian who measures the contestants and keeps the score of victories and defeats takes a different view. He dwells on all the differences which mark progress in the art of war, or which enable wealthier and more advanced societies to wage wars of greater magnitude. To Herodotus, no military undertaking ever assumed the proportions of Xerxes’ army on the march, raising a cloud of dust from horizon to horizon. Yet Thucydides says that before the Peloponnesian War “there was nothing on a great scale either in war or in other matters.”

The historian is attentive not only to weights and numbers, to the changing accoutrement of war and its mechanical elaboration, but also to inventions in the sphere of strategy and tactics. The Alexandrian phalanx, the patience of Fabius, the forced marches of Caesar, Hannibal’s outflanking and enveloping movements at the battle of Cannae, the deployment in depth of the Roman legions on the Rhine—these are but a few of the inventions of military genius which, as Plutarch, Tacitus, and Gibbon recognize, have an effect far beyond the advantage that novelty initially gives them. They become the classical models of war’s art and the principles of its science.

Tolstoy may scoff at the historians who stand in awe of military genius. He may be right that Kutuzov’s lack of plans rather than Napoleon’s air of outwitting all contingencies is the essence of great generalship. Nevertheless Tolstoy magnifies the campaign of 1812 as beyond comparison the greatest mass movement of humanity, from west to east and then from east to west, just as Herodotus apotheosizes the movement of the Persian horde from east to west and Thucydides the rise of Athenian naval power.

Writing from the center of a whole continent in arms a century later, Freud in 1915 gives his impression of what was yet to become the first world war. A war of such proportions and ferocity was almost incredible before it happened. “Then the war in which we had refused to believe broke out,” and, Freud writes, “not only is it more sanguinary and more destructive than any war of other days, because of the enormously increased perfection of weapons of attack and defense; but it is at least as cruel, as embittered, as implacable as any that preceded it. … It tramples in blind fury on all that comes in its way, as though there were to be no future and no goodwill among men after it has passed. It rends all bonds of fellowship between the contending peoples, and threatens to leave such a legacy of embitterment as will make any renewal of such bonds impossible for a long time to come.”

THE ENEMIES OF WAR use a variety of weapons in their attack. The Trojan Women of Euripides cries out with the bitterness of Andromache and Hecuba against the misery of war’s innocent victims—the women and children who are left to mourn the vanquished or to become the victors’ spoils. Aristophanes turns laughter rather than pity and fear against the waste of war. Such comedies as the Peace, the Acharnians, the Lysistrata make light of the issues over which men fight, and give war the aspect of a wearisome business, preposterous in its motives and hollow in its victories.

The genial satire of Rabelais exposes the impostures of war, but beneath the horseplay which deflates by its exaggerations, there is the earnest, serious note of Grangousier’s resolution not to “undertake war until I have first tried all the ways and means of peace.” Swift’s satire is not so amiable. In the eyes of the truly rational Houyhnhnms, war appears to be as senseless and despicable as the Yahoos who wage it. Gulliver tries to tell the Houyhnhnm who is his master about the wars of Europe, their causes and their cost. “I was going on to more particulars,” he relates, “when my master commanded me silence. He said whoever understood the nature of the Yahoos might easily believe it possible for so vile an animal to be capable of every action I had named, if their strength and cunning equalled their malice…. When a creature pretending to reason could be capable of such enormities, he dreaded lest the corruption of that faculty might be worse than brutality itself. He seemed therefore confident that, instead of reason, we were only possessed of some quality fitted to increase our natural vices.”

According to Augustine, it is not man’s nature but his sinfulness which degrades him below the beasts “devoid of rational will,” who “live more securely and peaceably with their own kind than men. … For not even lions or dragons have ever waged with their kind such wars as men have waged with one another.” Calling it “the greatest and most pompous of human actions,” Montaigne asks whether war is not “the testimony of our weakness and imperfection; for, in truth the science of undoing and killing one another, and of ruining and destroying our own kind, has nothing in it so tempting as to make it coveted by beasts who have it not.”

But in one of his essays, Montaigne also quotes Juvenal’s remark that “we suffer the ills of a long peace; luxury is more pernicious than war.” He seems to approve the Roman policy of maintaining wars “not only to keep their own men in action, for fear lest idleness, the mother of corruption, should bring upon them some worse inconvenience; but also to serve for a blood-letting to their Republic, and a little to evaporate the too vehement heat of their youth.” War as a purgative is a familiar theme. Hobbes, like Malthus later, suggests that “when all the world is overcharged with inhabitants, then the last remedy of all is war; which provideth for every man, by victory or death.”

Many writers seem to be ambivalent about war. Plato, for example, seems to see both sides of the question though he does not give them equal weight. In the Republic, Socrates proclaims the discovery that war is “derived from causes which are also the causes of almost all the evils in states, private as well as public.” In the Laws, the Athenian Stranger admits to Cleinias the Cretan that the laws of his city, devised primarily with a view to war, can be justified insofar as they aim at courage; but he reminds him later that insofar as such laws “regarded a part only, and not the whole of virtue, I disapproved of them.”

That he regards permanent peace as the ideal toward which the moral law commands us to strive, does not prevent Kant from saying that “a prolonged peace favours the predominance of a mere commercial spirit, and with it a debasing self-interest, cowardice, and effeminacy, and tends to degrade the character of the nation.” Nor is war to be absolutely condemned. “Provided it is conducted with order and a sacred respect for the rights of civilians,” war itself, says Kant, “has something sublime about it, and gives nations that carry it on in such a manner a stamp of mind only the more sublime the more numerous the dangers to which they are exposed, and which they are able to meet with fortitude.” Yet even while thinking that war can be a “spur for developing to the highest pitch all talents that minister to culture,” Kant reflects that the underlying purpose of war may be “to prepare the way for a rule of law governing the freedom of states, and thus bring about their unity in a system established on a moral basis.”

Hegel alone is not ambivalent. Not only is war not “to be regarded as an absolute evil,” but it is, according to Hegel, a necessary corrective for the corrosive influence of peace. “War is a state of affairs,” he writes, “which deals in earnest with the vanity of temporal goods and concerns—a vanity at other times the common theme of edifying sermonizing. … War has the higher significance that by its agency, as I have remarked elsewhere, ‘the ethical health of peoples is preserved in their indifference to the stabilization of finite institutions; just as the blowing of the winds preserves the sea from foulness which would be the result of a prolonged calm, so also the corruption in nations would be the product of prolonged, let alone “perpetual,” peace.’”

Far from agreeing with those who advocate “perpetual peace … as an ideal towards which humanity should strive,” Hegel points out that “in peace civil life continually expands; all its departments wall themselves in, and in the long run men stagnate. … As a result of war, nations are strengthened, and people involved in civil strife also acquire peace at home through making wars abroad.”

To Prince Andrew in War and Peace who says that “the aim of war is murder; the methods of war are spying, treachery, and their encouragement”; or to Freud who says that “the warring state permits itself every such misdeed, every such act of violence, as would disgrace the individual man,” Hegel has an answer. “States are not private persons,” he says, “but completely autonomous totalities in themselves, and so the relation between them differs from a moral relation and a relation involving private rights. … The relation between states is a relation between autonomous entities which make mutual stipulations, but which at the same time are superior to these stipulations.”

Self-interest, or “a will for its own welfare pure and simple,” is, according to Hegel, “the highest law governing the relation of one state to another.” Therefore, “when politics is alleged to clash with morals… the doctrine propounded rests on superficial ideas about morality, the nature of the state, and the state’s relation to the moral point of view.”

In Hegel’s view, “wars occur when the necessity of the case requires.” He is not alone in thinking war inevitable, but others who think the same do not do so in the same mood, or with the same opinion of the reason for its inevitability. “Drain the blood from men’s veins,” declares Prince Andrew’s father, “and put in water instead, then there will be no more war!” It is an illusion, Freud thinks, to suppose that civilization so transforms human nature as to lift it above the impulses of war. In war, he says, “our fellow-citizens have not sunk so low as we feared, because they have never risen so high as we believed.” The sad fact, he concludes, is that “war is not to be abolished; so long as the conditions of existence among the nations are so varied, and the repulsions between peoples so intense, there will be, there must be, wars.”

William James finds the human race as bellicose as its individual members are instinctively pugnacious; and Alexander Hamilton says that if we “judge from the history of mankind, we shall be compelled to conclude that the fiery and destructive passions of war reign in the human breast with much more powerful sway than the mild and beneficent sentiments of peace; and that to model our political systems upon speculations of lasting tranquility, is to calculate on the weaker springs of human character.”

To the extent that even those who deplore war despair of lasting peace, Machiavelli may not be too cynical a realist when he advises the prince that he “ought to have no other aim or thought, nor select anything else for his study, than war and its rules and discipline. … When princes have thought more of ease than of arms, they have lost their states.” The prince “ought never, therefore, to have out of his thoughts this subject of war, and in peace he should addict himself more to its exercise than in war.” The prince who delays in order to save himself from war makes a serious mistake. War, Machiavelli tells him, “is not to be avoided, but is only deferred to your disadvantage.”

Like Machiavelli, Cleinias the Cretan in Plato’s Laws justifies his city’s constant preoccupation with war or preparation for war. The world is foolish, he thinks, “in not understanding that all men are always at war with one another. … For what men in general term peace [is] only a name; in reality every city is in a natural state of war with every other, not indeed proclaimed by heralds, but everlasting.”

Both Plato and Aristotle seem to agree that war is somehow rooted in the nature of things—in the nature of men and the nature of cities. Yet both also look upon war as transitory, even if recurrent. “No one can be a true statesman,” the Athenian Stranger tells Cleinias, “who looks only, or first of all, to external warfare; nor will he ever be a sound legislator who orders peace for the sake of war, and not war for the sake of peace.” The whole of life, according to Aristotle, is “divided into two parts, business and leisure, war and peace. … There must be war for the sake of peace, business for the sake of leisure, things useful and necessary for the sake of things honorable. … Men must be able to engage in business and go to war, but leisure and peace are better; they must do what is necessary and indeed what is useful, but what is honorable is better.”

But how does war produce peace? One answer may be Tristram Shandy’s, that “as war begets poverty, poverty peace.” Another may be Virgil’s. In the opening book of his Aeneid, Jove predicts the coming of a Caesar “destined to bound with ocean his domain, as with the stars his glory.” When at last Rome has conquered the world, the golden age of peace—or at least the pax Romana—will supplant war’s age of iron. “Then war shall be laid aside, and the harsh world soften to peace. … the accursed gates of Battle shall be shut with iron bar and clenching bolt; and godless Frenzy shall sit within upon the weapons of savagery.”

In accordance with this heaven-laid destiny, Anchises bids his son Aeneas to make war for the sake of peace. “Roman, be this thy care—these thine arts—to bear dominion over the nations and to impose the law of peace, to spare the humbled and to war down the proud!” But some of the proud who are subjugated by Rome’s legions take a different view of the peace that is imposed by force of arms. Tacitus reports the speech of the British chieftain Galgacus, in which he refers to those “terrible Romans, from whose oppression escape is vainly sought by obedience and submission. …To robbery, slaughter, plunder, they give the lying name of empire; they create a wilderness and call it peace.”

Augustine more soberly reflects on the inevitable frustration of the Roman kind of peace. “The imperial city,” he writes, “has endeavored to impose on subject nations not only her yoke, but her language, as a bond of peace. … How many great wars, how much slaughter and bloodshed, have provided this unity. And though these are past, the end of these miseries has not yet come. For though there have never been wanting, nor are yet wanting, hostile nations beyond the empire, against whom wars have been and are waged, yet supposing there were no such nations, the very extent of the empire itself has produced wars of a more obnoxious description—social and civil wars—and with these the whole race has been agitated, either by the actual conflict or the fear of a renewed outbreak.”

DESPITE HIS PERCEPTION of war’s failures, despite his enjoining the wise men, not merely to wage, but “to lament the necessity of just wars,” Augustine holds that it is “with the desire for peace that wars are waged. … Every man seeks peace by waging war, but no man seeks war by making peace. For even they who intentionally interrupt the peace in which they are living have no hatred of peace, but only wish it changed into a peace that suits them better. … Even those whom they make war against they wish to make their own, and impose on them the laws of their own peace.”

Peace, according to Augustine, consists in harmony and concord. “Peace between man and man is well-ordered concord. Domestic peace is the well-ordered concord between those of the family who rule and those who obey. Civil peace is a similar concord among the citizens…. The peace of all things is the tranquillity of order.” Without disagreeing essentially, Aquinas explains that peace involves more than concord. “Wherever peace is,” he says, “there is concord, but there is not peace wherever there is concord, if we give peace its proper meaning.” The peace between men may consist in concord, “not indeed any kind of concord, but that which is well-ordered, through one man agreeing with another in respect of something befitting to them both. For if one man agree with another, not of his own accord, but through being forced … such concord is not really peace.”

For men to be at peace with one another, Aquinas believes, each must be at peace with himself, but “man’s heart is not at peace, so long as he has not what he wants, or if, having what he wants, there still remains something for him to want.” This, according to Aquinas, explains why Augustine defined peace not simply as concord, but as the tranquillity of order, for by “tranquillity” is meant all the desires of each individual man “being set at rest together.” It also explains why “those who seek war and dissension, desire nothing but peace, which they deem themselves not to have. For,” Aquinas reminds us, “there is no peace when a man enters into concord with another counter to what he would prefer. Consequently men seek by means of war to break this concord, because it is a defective peace, in order that they may obtain peace, where nothing is contrary to their will. Hence all wars are waged that men may find a more perfect peace than that which they had heretofore.”

The fundamental insight here seems to be that, though charity or love produces the unity of peace, peace is also “the work of justice”—indirectly, as Aquinas says, “insofar as justice removes the obstacles to peace.” Thucydides gives us an historian’s confirmation of the theologian’s point. He tells us why he considers the long truce or armistice—a period of no actual fighting—to be a part of the war. “Only a mistaken judgment,” he writes, “can object to including the interval of treaty in the war. Looked at by the light of facts it cannot, it will be found, be rationally considered a state of peace, where neither party either gave or got back all that they had agreed upon.”

To the same effect is the speech of Hermocrates the Syracusan, which Thucydides reports. “That war is an evil is a proposition so familiar to everyone that it would be tedious to develop it. No one,” he declares, “is forced to engage in it by ignorance, or kept out of it by fear, if he fancies there is anything to be gained by it. … I suppose that no one will dispute that we went to war at first, in order to serve our several interests; that we are now, in view of the same interests, debating how we can make peace; and that if we separate without having as we think our rights, we shall go to war again.”

THUCYDIDES’ OBSERVATION THAT periods of armistice or truce are part of war, and the remark of Cleinias in Plato’s Laws that “every city is in a natural state of war with every other,” may anticipate Hobbes, but full clarity on the point is not reached until Hobbes explicitly distinguishes between war as battle and the state of war which always prevails between men or nations when they do not live together under a common government.

“War consisteth not in battle only,” Hobbes explains, “or in the act of fighting; but in a tract of time, wherein the will to contend by battle is sufficiently known; and therefore the notion of time is to be considered in the nature of war, as it is in the nature of weather. For as the nature of foul weather lyeth not in a shower or two of rain, but in an inclination thereto of many days together, so the nature of War consisteth not in actual fighting but in the known disposition thereto, during all the time there is no assurance to the contrary. All other time is Peace.”

Hobbes does not exclude from the condition of peace differences between men or even discord, but only fighting or the need to resort to fighting as a way of settling differences or resolving conflicts. He is cognizant of the distinction which Machiavelli paraphrases from Cicero. “There are two ways of contesting,” Machiavelli writes, “the one by law, the other by force; the first method is proper to men, the second to beasts.” Here Machiavelli adds the comment that “because the first is frequently not sufficient, it is necessary to have recourse to the second.” But Hobbes does not think it is always necessary. At least there is a cure for “the war of every man against every man.” That cure is the formation of a commonwealth and the institution of government with sufficient coercive force to maintain law and secure peace. “Anarchy and the condition of war,” according to Hobbes, are one and the same, a condition in which each man, being a law unto himself and judge in his own case, must of necessity resort to force if he would impose his will upon, or resist the will of, another.

Since men are everywhere found in societies, living under law and government, it might seem that the universal state of war to which Hobbes refers is now abolished. Not so, according to Hobbes, for “though there had never been a time wherein particular men were in a condition of war one against another; yet,” in his opinion, “in all times, kings and persons of sovereign authority, because of their independency, are in continual jealousies, and in the state and posture of gladiators; having their weapons pointing, and their eyes fixed on one another; that is, their forts, garrisons, and guns upon the frontiers of their kingdoms, and continual spies upon their neighbors; which is a posture of War.”

This notion that sovereigns are always in a state of war with one another—because being sovereigns they are autonomous, i.e., not subject to any superior government—seems to be accepted by most of the great political writers who come after Hobbes. The point is sometimes differently formulated, but the basic insight remains essentially the same.

Locke, for example, makes a threefold distinction between the state of nature, which is anarchy or complete independence; the state of war, in which force without authority is resorted to by men to settle their differences; and the state of civil society which provides law and government for the arbitration of disputes. “Civil society,” he writes, is “a state of peace amongst those who are of it, from whom the state of war is excluded by the umpirage which they have provided in their legislative for the ending all differences that may arise amongst any of them.”

Since Locke holds that “want of a common judge with authority puts all men in a state of nature,” it follows for him that, though the state of nature and the state of war may not be identical, the state of nature, unlike that of civil society, inevitably lapses into the state of war. If in a state of nature men fail to settle their differences by reason, they enter into the state of war which is the realm of force “or a declared design of force … where there is no common superior on earth to appeal to for relief.”

With these qualifications, Locke not only agrees with Hobbes that “all princes and rulers of independent governments all through the world are in a state of nature,” but also draws from this the same implication for war and peace. Since “the whole community is one body in the state of nature in respect of all other states or persons out of its community,” Locke argues that the government of each state must have “the power of war and peace, leagues and alliances,” in relation to everything external to itself.

Montesquieu and Rousseau slightly alter Hobbes’ point by attributing the origin of war itself to the existence of separate societies. War, writes Rousseau, “is a relation, not between man and man, but between State and State.” Because they are “in a state of nature among themselves,” bodies politic experience, in his opinion, “the inconveniences which had obliged individuals to forsake it. … Hence arose national wars, battles, murders and reprisals, which shock nature and outrage reason.”

Hegel’s ultimate reason for thinking that war is ineradicable seems to be not merely that sovereign states are “in a state of nature in relation to each other,” but that they must always remain so. “There is no Praetor to judge between states,” he writes; “at best there may be an arbitrator or a mediator, and even he exercises his functions contingently only, i.e., in dependence on the particular wills of the disputants.”

That is why Hegel dismisses Kant’s idea “for securing ‘perpetual peace’ by a League of Nations to adjust every dispute. … This idea,” Hegel writes, “presupposes an accord between states; this would rest on moral and religious or other grounds and considerations, but in any case would always depend ultimately on a particular sovereign will and for that reason would remain infected with contingency.” Hence, he concludes, “if states disagree and their particular wills cannot be harmonized, the matter can only be settled by war.”

KANT AGREES THAT, in the absence of what he calls a “cosmo-political constitution” or world state, “war is inevitable.” In their external relations to one another, states, “like lawless savages, are naturally in a non-juridical condition,” and this, according to Kant, “is a state of war, in which the right of the stronger prevails; and although it may not in fact be always found as a state of actual war and incessant hostility … yet the condition is wrong in itself in the highest degree, and the nations which form States contiguous to each other are bound mutually to pass out of it.”

How shall this be accomplished? Is Kant’s idea the one Hegel attributes to him? Is the “alliance of nations,” of which he speaks, to be a “league of nations” or does he have something more than that in mind when he says that “this mutual connection by alliance” must “take the form of a Federation”?

On the one hand, he calls for “a universal Union of States analogous to that by which a Nation becomes a State,” and argues that “it is only thus that a real state of Peace could be established.” But on the other, he explains that he means “only a voluntary combination of different States that would be dissoluble at any time, and not such a union as is embodied in the United States of America, founded upon a political constitution, and therefore indissoluble.”

The arguments for the federal constitution of the United States help to make this issue clear. The authors of the Constitution regard it as providing “a more perfect union” than the Articles of Confederation under which the thirteen separate colonies are banded together by little more than treaties or alliances. To the writers of The Federalist, who advocate the adoption of a federal union to replace the loose confederacy or league of states, there is no middle ground between the establishment of peace through federal union and the continuation of the state of war between separate states.

“A man must be far gone in Utopian speculations,” Hamilton declares, “who can seriously doubt that, if these States should either be wholly disunited, or only united in partial confederacies, the subdivisions into which they might be thrown would have frequent and violent contests with each other. … To look for a continuation of harmony between a number of independent, unconnected sovereignties in the same neighborhood, would be to disregard the uniform course of events, and to set at defiance the accumulated experience of ages.” In another paper, Hamilton admits that “there is nothing absurd or impracticable in the idea of a league or alliance between independent nations for certain defined purposes precisely stated in a treaty,” but he thinks that Europe has taught “an instructive but afflicting lesson to mankind, how little dependence is to be placed on treaties which have no other sanction than the obligations of good faith.”

He returns therefore to attack the “visionary or designing men, who stand ready to advocate the paradox of perpetual peace between the States, though dismembered and alienated from each other.” What reason have we to expect, he asks, “peace and cordiality between the members of the present confederation, in a state of separation”? It seems to him “an established truth that the several states, in the case of disunion… would be subject to those vicissitudes of peace and war, of friendship and enmity with each other, which have fallen to the lot of all neighboring nations not united under one government.”

The Federalists do not seriously recommend their prescription for peace as a plan for the whole world. Yet they see the generalization that is implicit in all their reasoning. “Happy would it be,” Madison says, “if such a remedy for its infirmities could be enjoyed by all free governments; if a project equally effectual could be established for the universal peace of mankind!”

John Stuart Mill, writing somewhat later and in the light of the experience of American federation as a peace plan, seems to be even less ready to propose world federal government as the indispensable condition of world peace. He has no doubt that federal union “puts an end to war and diplomatic quarrels.” But he does not think that abrogating the distinction between fellow countrymen and foreigners by making them all fellow citizens of an encompassing state—an object which is “one of the worthiest to which human endeavor can be directed”—can, “in the present state of civilization, be promoted by keeping different nationalities of anything like equivalent strength under the same government.”

Not only does Kant definitely dismiss the notion of a world union formed along American lines, but even that less perfect union of states which would have the form of a “Permanent Congress of Nations,” seems to him an impracticable idea in the world as it is at the end of the eighteenth century. “With the too great extension of such a Union of States over vast regions,” he writes, “any government of it, and consequently the protection of its individual members, must at last become impossible; and thus a multitude of such corporations would again bring round a state of war.”

Nevertheless, Kant refuses to yield completely to this conclusion. “The morally practical reason,” he affirms, “utters within us its irrevocable Veto: ‘There shall be no War.’ … Hence the question no longer is as to whether Perpetual Peace is a real thing or not a real thing, or as to whether we may not be deceiving ourselves when we adopt the former alternative, but we must act on the supposition of its being real. We must work for what may perhaps not be realized … and thus we may put an end to the evil of wars, which have been the chief interest of the internal arrangements of all States without exception.”

And in his Idea of a Universal History on a Cosmo-Political Plan, Kant does more than urge upon us our moral duty to work for perpetual peace as prerequisite to “the highest political good.” He engages in prophecy. He pictures the nations of the world “after many devastations, overthrows, and even complete internal exhaustion of their powers” as “driven forward to the goal which Reason might well have impressed upon them, even without so much sad experience. This is none other than the advance out of the lawless state of savages and the entering into a Federation of Nations. … However visionary this idea may appear to be … it is nevertheless the inevitable issue of the necessity in which men involve one another.”

THE ARGUMENT FOR WORLD GOVERNMENT as the means to world peace is nowhere made in the great books as explicitly as in Dante’s De Monarchia. “Wherever there can be contention,” Dante writes, “there judgment should exist; otherwise things should exist imperfectly, without their own means of adjustment or correction. … Between any two governments, neither of which is in any way subordinate to the other, contention can arise either through their own fault or that of their subjects. This is evident. Therefore there should be judication between them. And since neither can know the affairs of the other, not being subordinate (for among equals there is no authority), there must be a third and wider power which rules both within its own jurisdiction.

“This third power,” Dante continues, “is either the world-government, or it is not. If it is, we have reached our conclusion; if it is not, it must in turn have its equal outside its jurisdiction, and then it will need a third party as a judge, and so ad infinitum, which is impossible. So we must arrive at a first and supreme judge for whom all contentions are judicable either directly or indirectly. … Therefore, world-government is necessary for the world.” Aristotle, according to Dante, “saw this argument when he said, ‘Things hate to be in disorder, but a plurality of authorities is disorder; therefore authority is single.’” But Aristotle certainly did not draw the conclusion that a single government embracing all mankind should be instituted so that “by common law it might lead all toward peace.” Nor, with the exception of Kant, does any other great author argue to this conclusion. But, as we have seen, Kant, unlike Dante, reaches this conclusion only to qualify his acceptance of it and his advocacy of world government.

Nevertheless, several of the great books do contain the nerve of the argument. It is contained in one fundamental proposition that is variously enunciated by Hobbes and Locke, Rousseau and the Federalists. That proposition is: As anarchy leads to war, government establishes peace, and just laws preserve it. By inductive generalization, it seems to follow that, if local peace depends on local government, world peace depends on world government.

But if, except for Dante and Kant, no one until the present made this inference, the tradition of western thought does include, not only the essential premise for making the inference, but also the controlling vision of a politically united humanity—all men as fellow citizens in a single political society embracing the earth.

Kant speaks of “the right of man as a citizen of the world to attempt to enter into communion with all others.” Epictetus says, “there is but one course open to men, to do as Socrates did: never to reply to one who asks his country, ‘I am an Athenian,’ or ‘I am a Corinthian,’ but ‘I am a citizen of the universe.’”

Reflecting on the fact that man’s “nature is rational and social,” Marcus Aurelius declares: “My city and my country, so far as I am Antoninus, is Rome, but so far as I am a man, it is the world.” If we look at “what value everything has with reference to the whole,” we will perceive that man “is a citizen of the highest city, of which all other cities are like families.” The reason which is common to all men dictates a common law of human life. “If this is so,” Aurelius argues, “we are fellow citizens; if this is so, we are members of one political community; if this is so, the world is in a manner a state.”

Aristotle describes how the family is formed by the union of man and wife, parents and children; and from this first of all social units, the tribe or village is formed by a union of families, and the city or state by a union of villages. He does not carry this series on to its natural terminus, but Augustine does. “After the state or city,” Augustine says, “comes the world, the third circle of human society—the first being the family, the second the city.”

Yet Augustine, who orders earthly peace to the peace of heaven, does not prophesy a single political community of all men living together under one government. The heavenly city, he says, “while it sojourns on earth, calls citizens out of all nations, and gathers together a society of pilgrims of all languages, not scrupling about diversities in the manners, laws, and institutions whereby earthly peace is secured and maintained, but recognizing that, however various these are, they all tend to one and the same end of earthly peace.”

One and the same end of earthly peace may require one city of man as well as one city of God. That, according to Dostoevsky, seems to be implied in the fact that “the craving for universal unity is the third and last anguish of men. Mankind as a whole,” he writes, “has always striven to organize a universal state. There have been many great nations with great histories, but the more highly developed the more unhappy they were, for they felt more acutely than other people the craving for world-wide union.”

OUTLINE OF TOPICS

1. War as the reign of force: the state of war and the state of nature
2. The kinds of war
   • 2a. Civil war and war between states or international war
   • 2b. Religious wars: the defense and propagation of the faith
   • 2c. The class war: the conflict of economic groups
3. The rights of war
   • 3a. The distinction between just and unjust warfare: wars of defense and wars of conquest
   • 3b. Justice and expediency in relation to the initiation and prosecution of a war: laws governing the conduct of warfare
4. The causes or occasions of war
   • 4a. The precipitation of war between states: remote and proximate causes; real and apparent causes
   • 4b. The factors responsible for civil strife
5. The effects of war
   • 5a. The moral consequences of war: its effects on the happiness and virtue of men and on the welfare of women and children
   • 5b. The political consequences of war: its effects on different forms of government
   • 5c. The economic consequences of war: the cost of war and the by-products of war
6. The conception of war as a political means or instrument
   • 6a. Conquest, empire, political expansion as ends of war
   • 6b. Liberty, justice, honor, peace as ends of war
7. The inevitability of war: the political necessity of military preparations
8. The desirability of war: its moral and political benefits
9. The folly and futility of war
10. The military arts and the military profession: their role in the state
    • 10a. The formation of military policy: the relation between the military and the statesman or prince
    • 10b. Different types of soldiery: mercenaries, volunteers, conscripts, militia
    • 10c. The military virtues: the qualities of the professional soldier; education for war
    • 10d. The principles of strategy and tactics: the military genius
    • 10e. The rise of naval power and its role in war
    • 10f. The development of weapons: their kinds and uses
    • 10g. The making of truces or alliances as a military device
11. The nature, causes, and conditions of peace
    • 11a. Law and government as indispensable conditions of civil peace: the political community as the unit of peace
    • 11b. Justice and fraternity as principles of peace among men
    • 11c. International law and international peace: treaties, alliances, and leagues as instrumentalities of international peace
    • 11d. World government and world peace

REFERENCES

To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 Homer: Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d, the number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the passage is in section d of page 12.

Page Sections: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 James: Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.

Author’s Divisions: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH, SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in certain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d.

Bible References: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTAMENT: Nehemiah, 7:45—(D) II Esdras, 7:46.

Symbols: The abbreviation “esp” calls the reader’s attention to one or more especially relevant parts of a whole reference; “passim” signifies that the topic is discussed intermittently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.

For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.

1. War as the reign of force: the state of war and the state of nature

4 HOMER: Iliad 3a-179d 5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [437-444] 56d 5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [784-800] 385a-b 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK V, 488d-489b 7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44c-d / Laws, BK I, 640d-641a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253ª2-7] 446b 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK II 124a-146b; BK VII-XII 236a-379b 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 12, 517d-518c; CH 28 529d-530a,c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 105, A 3, ANS and REP 1 316a-318b; PART II-II, Q 29, A 2, REP 2 531a-d 22 CHAUCER: Knight’s Tale [1981-2050] 192b-193b 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XVIII, 25a-b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 76d-77a; 84c-86b; 86d; 92a; PART II, 99a-100a; 102d; 104b-d; 114b-c; 153b; 159c-d 26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT I, SC 1 [1-13] 105b 27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT I, SC III [75-137] 108d-109c 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20c-d 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2 435b-436a 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK I [622-662] 107a-108a; BK XI [634-707] 313a-314b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH II-IV 25d-30b esp CH III, SECT 19 29b-c; CH XII, SECT 145-146 58d-59a; CH XIII, SECT 155 60d-61a; CH XV, SECT 172 65b-c; CH XVI 65d-70c; CH XVIII, SECT 207 72d-73a; CH XIX, SECT 231-239 78c-81b passim 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 2b-3a; BK XXVI, 223c-d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 335b-336a; 343a-345c; 346b-d; 351b-352a; 353d-356a; 361c-362a; 364a-b / Political Economy, 370d / Social Contract, BK I, 389d-390d; BK II, 398a-b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 237c-d 42 KANT: Pure Reason, 222b-c / Science of Right, 434b-c; 435c-436b; 450d-451a; 452a-d; 454a-455c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, PAR 93 36a-b; PART III, PAR 324-326 107a-108a; PAR 333-338 109b-110b / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 171c-172b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace 53 JAMES: Psychology, 717a-b

2. The kinds of war

2a. Civil war and war between states or international war

5 AESCHYLUS: Eumenides [848-869] 89d-90a 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK III, 102d-107c; BK V, 172c-174b; BK VIII, 260b-c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 355a-b; BK III, 434c-438b; BK IV, 459a-c; 463a-465c; BK V, 482d-483a; 503d-504b; BK VIII, 575c-576c; 577b-d; 579c-583c; 585d-586b; 587a-589a; 590a-c 7 PLATO: Republic, BK V, 367b-368c / Laws, BK I, 640d-643c / Seventh Letter, 806d-807b 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK V, CH 4 [1304ᵇ18-39] 505d-506a / Athenian Constitution, CH 14-19 558d-561d; CH 29-41 566b-572a 14 PLUTARCH: Pompey, 533a-c / Caesar, 598c-d / Otho, 875b-d 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 12d-13b / Histories, BK III, 248c-d; 261d-262a 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 7 515a-c; CH 12, 517c-d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 42 583c-584d 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XIX, 26b-d; CH XX, 31b-c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b; PART I, 68d-69a; 77c; 78b; 85d-86a; PART II, 99d-100a; 104c; 114b-c; 121b-122b; 147c; 150b-151a; 153c; 159b-c; 164a,c 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 54b-c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 470a-b; 504c-506a 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT II, SC IV-ACT III, SC I 11b-16b; ACT IV, SC I [182-194] 21d / 2nd Henry VI 33a-68d esp ACT I, SC I [180-259] 35c-36b / 3rd Henry VI 69a-104d esp ACT I, SC I 69b,d-72d / Richard III 105a-148a,c esp ACT V, SC V [16-41] 148a,c / Richard II, ACT IV, SC I [110-149] 342c-343a / 1st Henry IV, ACT I, SC I 434b,d-435c esp [1-33] 434b,d / Julius Caesar, ACT III, SC I [262-275] 583b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XIII, SECT 155 60d-61a; CH XIX, SECT 224-243 76d-81d esp SECT 224-230 76d-78c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 361c-362a / Social Contract, BK II, 402c-d; BK III, 418b [fn 1] 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 35a; 48d-49a; 71b-74c; 111b-113d esp 113b-d; 437d; 652d-655c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 474a; 570d-571a; 572c-d; 594b-595b 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: 1a-3b esp [80-94] 2b-3a 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE IV, SECT 4 16b-c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 16 66c-68d; NUMBER 28 96c-98b; NUMBER 29, 99b-101a; NUMBER 43, 141a-142d; NUMBER 46, 152a-153a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART III, 297a-b 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [10,242-284] 249b-250b 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 424d; 428a-b

2b. Religious wars: the defense and propagation of the faith

APOCRYPHA: Judith—(D) OT, Judith / I Maccabees, 1-9; 14:29-37—(D) OT, I Machabees, 1-9; 14:29-37 / II Maccabees, 6-10—(D) OT, II Machabees, 6-10 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 10, A 8 432b-433b; Q 40, A 2, REP 4 579b-580c; Q 188, A 3 677a-678b; PART III SUPPL, Q 96, A 6, REP 11 1058a-1061b 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III, 117c-d 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry IV, ACT I, SC I [1-33] 434b,d 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 290c 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK XII [485-551] 329b-331a 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 1c-2c; 7b; 13c-d; 20c-21c 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART I, 21a-23a; PART IV, 149b-150b 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 142b-c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XV, 110b-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK IV, 435b-436a; 437c; 438c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 233c-234a,c; 310a-328c passim, esp 324d-326b, 328b; 382a-d; 391a-c; 541b; 601d-604d esp 602c-603a 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 124c; 128d-129b; 134a-161a,c passim, esp 134a-b, 138c-d, 145d-147d; 199c-202a; 237c-243b; 253a-310d esp 259b-261b, 288b,d, 305b; 323a-c; 331b-333b; 378b-453a,c esp 381a-387c, 397c-398a, 406a-409c, 422a-424a, 451c-452d; 531d-551b esp 531d-534a, 544b-545c; 583c-586a; 588a-589a 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: III 5b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART III, 313b-c; PART IV, 322c-323a; 337d-339d; 358b-360a

2c. The class war: the conflict of economic groups

5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [229-245] 260b-c 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VI, 202d-203a 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK III, 423a-b; 436d-438b; BK IV, 458d-459c; 463a-465c; 466a-469b; 480a-c; BK V, 482d-483a; 502d; 503d-504b; BK VI, 524d-525d; 533a-c; BK VIII 564a-593a,c passim, esp 575c-576c, 577b-d, 579c-581c, 582a-583c, 585d-586b, 587a-589a, 590a-c 7 PLATO: Republic, BK IV, 342d-344a; BK VIII, 405c-406b; 412d-415a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 6 [1265ᵇ6-12] 461a; CH 7 461d-463c passim; CH 9 [1269ª37-b13] 465c-d; BK IV, CH 11 [1295ᵇ2-1296ᵇ2] 495c-496c; BK V 502a-519d passim, esp CH 5-6 506b-508c / Athenian Constitution, CH 2-5 553a-555a 14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 68d-70c / Tiberius Gracchus 671b,d-681a,c / Caius Gracchus 681b,d-689a,c / Cicero, 708a-713b 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK II, 224d-225a 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH IX, 14c-d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 156b-c 27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus 351a-392a,c esp ACT I, SC I [1-47] 351a-d 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XI, 78a-80c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 353d-356a / Political Economy, 375b-d / Social Contract, BK IV, 429c-431c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 28a-d; BK V, 309a-311c esp 309a-c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 127a-c; 144a-c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 574b-582b passim, esp 575a-d, 579a-581a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 193b-c; PART II, 275b-276a; PART III, 287d-288b; 295d-296c; PART IV, 356c-357a 50 MARX: Capital, 7b-d; 8c-9b; 63b-c; 113c; 131a-b; 134c-146c esp 145a; 209c-215a esp 209c, 212a, 214a; 275a-b; 295a 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto 415a-434d esp 415c-d, 416c-d, 419b,d-420a, 423c-425c, 434c-d 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK X, 410c-421c 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK VI, 165b-166a 54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 882c-884c esp 884a

3. The rights of war

3a. The distinction between just and unjust warfare: wars of defense and wars of conquest

5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [333-479] 5a-7a; [825-953] 11d-13a / Persians [739-831] 23a-24a 5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants 258a-269a,c esp [286-358] 260d-261c, [513-565] 262d-263b / Phoenician Maidens 378a-393d esp [357-637] 381a-383d 5 ARISTOPHANES: Peace [601-692] 532d-534a 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 1a-2b; BK IV, 144b-d 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK III, 425d-426d; 430b-431b; 432a-434a; BK IV, 461b-d; 469d-470b; BK V, 505b-c; 506b-c 7 PLATO: Republic, BK I, 307a-308c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 8 [1256ᵇ20-26] 450c 14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 55c-56a / Camillus, 108b-109a 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK IV, 272b-c; 290a-c 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I, CH 21 142d-143a; BK IV, CH 14-15 196b-197a; BK XIX, CH 7 515a-c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 105, A 3, ANS 316a-318b; PART II-II, Q 40, A 1 578a-579b; A 2, REP 2-3 579b-580c; Q 41, A I, REP 3 581d-582c; Q 42, A 2, REP 1,3 584b-d 22 CHAUCER: Tale of Melibeus 401a-432a esp PAR 12 404a-b, PAR 30-38 413b-418a, PAR 53-60 425b-427b 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XXVI, 36b-37a 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 30d-32c; 35a-39b; 58a-59d; BK III, 117c-d; BK III, 131b,d-133b 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 440b-442d 26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT V, SC III [237-270] 146b-c / 2nd Henry IV, ACT IV, SC I [1]-SC II [42] 487b-490a 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 290c-d 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH I-III 25d-29d; CH XIII, SECT 155 60d-61a; CH XIV, SECT 167-168 64a-c; CH XV, SECT 172 65b-c; CH XVI 65d-70c; CH XVIII, SECT 203-210 72a-73c; CH XIX, SECT 223-243 76c-81d 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART I, 23a-25b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK X, 61b,d-63d 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 383c-384b 42 KANT: Science of Right, 413d; 454a-b; 455b-c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 3-4 33b-37a esp NUMBER 4, 35a-b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 326 107d-108a; PAR 351 112a-b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 12d-13a; BK IX, 344b-355c; BK X, 443a

3b. Justice and expediency in relation to the initiation and prosecution of a war: laws governing the conduct of warfare

OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 20 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK VI [35-71] 40b-d 5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [40-254] 52c-54d 5 SOPHOCLES: Philoctetes 182a-195a,c 5 EURIPIDES: Iphigenia at Aulis 425a-439d 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VII, 214d-220b; 243d-246c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 365c-371b; 378a-380a; 384b-386d; BK II, 402c-d; BK III, 417a-420c; 429b-434c; BK V, 504c-507c; BK VI, 511c-516b; 518a-520d; 529b-533a; BK VIII, 556b-557b 7 PLATO: Republic, BK V, 367b-368c 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK XI [242-444] 334b-340a; BK XII [1-53] 354a-355b 14 PLUTARCH: Themistocles, 96c-d / Camillus, 106b-107a; 108b-109a / Marcellus, 254c-255b / Pyrrhus, 319b-d / Lysander, 357a-b / Cimon, 397c-398d / Nicias, 426a / Agesilaus, 484a-b; 491a-b / Alexander, 549d-550c; 569a-b / Demetrius, 727d-728b / Marcus Brutus, 821b-d 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 15b 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I, CH 1-7 129d-133a 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 105, A 3, ANS and REP 4 316a-318b; PART II-II, Q 40, AA 3-4 580d-581d 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XXI, 32a-d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 95a; PART II, 110b-111a; 147c; CONCLUSION, 279d-281a 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 11b-13c; 22d-23b; 95a-97a; 334b-336c 26 SHAKESPEARE: King John, ACT II, SC I [561-598] 385c-386a; ACT III, SC I [255-347] 388d-389d / 2nd Henry IV, ACT IV, SC II [52-123] 490b-491b / Henry V, ACT I, SC II [1-233] 534a-536b; ACT III, SC III [1-43] 545d-546a; ACT IV, SC VII [1-68] 558d-559b 27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT V, SC III [94-171] 388a-d / Timon of Athens, ACT V, SC IV [1-64] 419d-420c 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XI, SECT 139 57c-58a; CH XVI 65d-70c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 3a-b; BK X, 61b,d-63d; BK XV, 109b-c; 110a-c; BK XXIV, 201b-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK I, 389d-390d; BK II, 395d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 404a-b; 409b-d; 509b-c; 543c; 549d-550b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 5d-6a; 7d-8a; 17d-18c; 27b-28b; 130b-c; 373d-374d; 445a; 532d-533a; 729a [n 86] 42 KANT: Science of Right, 434d; 452c-455c esp 454a-c / Judgement, 504a-b 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [84-94] 2b-3a 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: VI [124-146] 6c-d; IX [186-191] 7b 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 8 [220-225] 13b; SECT 10 [296-298] 14a; [314-320] 14b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 6, 40a-b; NUMBER 11, 54c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 338-339 110a-b; ADDITIONS, 193 150c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK IX, 344b-355c; BK X, 442c-443b; BK XII, 547a-551c; BK XIV, 589a-c; 598b-599b 54 FREUD: War and Death, 756c-757c

4. The causes or occasions of war

4a. The precipitation of war between states: remote and proximate causes; real and apparent causes

4 HOMER: Iliad, BK III [155-182] 11c-d; BK VII [344-378] 49c-d; BK XII [345-360] 91d-92a 5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [333-479] 5a-7a; [825-953] 11d-13a / Agamemnon [399-455] 56b-57a; [681-749] 59b-60a 5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants 258a-269a,c esp [399-597] 261d-263c / Phoenician Maidens [357-637] 381a-383d / Iphigenia at Aulis [49-88] 425c-d 5 ARISTOPHANES: Acharnians [480-565] 460d-461c / Peace [195-222] 528a-c; [601-692] 532d-534a / Plutus [144-197] 630d-631b 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 1a-2c; 10a; 11b-c; 16b-c; BK II, 71a-73b; BK III, 89a-d; 99c-100a; 118a-c; 119c-120b; BK IV, 146a-b; 152b-c; 154a-b; BK V, 165a-166a; 174b-175b; 175d-177b; 180c-d; 182b; BK VI, 202c-203d; 211a-b; 212a-c; BK VIII, 214d-220b; BK VIII, 280b-d; 283a-b 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I 349a-386d esp 349b-d, 353c-d, 354d-355a, 362d-363a, 365a-b, 371b; BK III, 418d-419d; BK V, 491c-492b; 493c-496b; 497b; BK VI, 510c-511a 7 PLATO: Phaedo, 224d / Republic, BK II, 318c-319a; BK VIII, 413d-414d esp 414c / Statesman, 605d-608d 8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK II, CH 11 [94ª36-b8] 129a-b 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VII 236a-258b 14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 57d-60b / Camillus, 108b-109c / Pericles, 130d-137c / Coriolanus, 179c-180b / Pyrrhus, 319b-d / Lysander, 366b-c / Demetrius, 727d 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK VI, 94a-d; BK XI, 122a-c; BK XII, 134a; BK XV, 157d-158b; 163c-164a / Histories, BK I, 207b-c 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK III, CH 10 172d-173c; CH 13-14 174c-176d; BK V, CH 12, 216d-218a; BK XIX, CH 7 515a-c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 29, A 2, REP 2 531a-d; Q 40, A I, ANS 578a-579b 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XXI, 31d-32d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 76d-77a; PART II, 157a 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 30d-32c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 299d-300c; 330b-331a 26 SHAKESPEARE: King John, ACT III, SC I 386a-389d esp [253-297] 388d-389b / Henry V, ACT I 533a-537b 27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT II, SC II 113c-115d 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 290a-d 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK XI [634-707] 313a-314b 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 13c-d 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART IV, 150a-151b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK X, 61b,d-62a 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 380a / Social Contract, BK II, 403c-404b 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 95b; 98d-100c; 101b-c; 103a-110c passim; 119d; 148b-149d passim; 261c; 264d-265a; 558a-572a passim, esp 558a-c, 571b,d-572a 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 1a-2d passim; 46c-47a; 380b-384b; 531d-534a passim, esp 531d-532b; 539d-541c 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: II 5b; VI [124-146] 6c-d 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 3-7 33b-44c passim; NUMBER 18-20 71a-78b passim; NUMBER 24, 88d-89a; NUMBER 34, 110b-d; NUMBER 80, 235b-236a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 334-335 109c-d / Philosophy of History, PART I, 232b-c; PART II, 262c-263a; 274a-275b; 278c-281b; PART IV, 357a-358b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK IX, 342a-355c; BK X, 389a-391c; BK XI, 469a-472b; BK XIII, 563a-b; EPILOGUE I, 645a-650c; EPILOGUE II 675a-696d passim 54 FREUD: War and Death, 755c; 761a-c; 766b-d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 788b-d

4b. The factors responsible for civil strife

5 AESCHYLUS: Eumenides [848-869] 89d-90a 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 29d-30b; BK IV, 124a-d; 126a-b 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK III, 434c-438b; BK IV, 460c-d; BK V, 482d-483a; BK VIII, 568d-569a 7 PLATO: Republic, BK IV, 342d-344a; BK VIII, 408b-409b / Statesman, 605d-608d / Laws, BK III, 668d-676b / Seventh Letter, 814b-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 6 [1265ᵇ6-12] 461a; CH 7 461d-463c passim; CH 9 [1269ª37-b13] 465c-d; BK IV, CH 11 [1295ª2-1296ª2] 495c-496c; BK V 502a-519d passim 12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK III [68-73] 31a 14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 13a-14c / Solon, 68d-69d / Camillus, 117c-121a,c / Pericles, 124a-130b esp 126d-127a / Coriolanus, 176b-184c / Sulla, 369a-374a / Caesar, 581d-582a / Agis 648b,d-656d / Cleomenes, 657a-663c / Tiberius Gracchus 671b,d-681a,c esp 680b-d / Caius Gracchus 681b,d-689a,c / Cicero, 708a-713b / Antony, 750a-b / Galba, 859a-c 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 4a-d; 10d-11b / Histories, BK I, 190a-191a; 195a-196b; 198d-199c; 202c-205a; BK II, 215d-216b; 224d-225a 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 7 515a-c 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, INFERNO, VI [58-75] 9a; PURGATORY, XIV [16-126] 73d-75a 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH III, 3c-5a; CH IV-V 7a-8c; CH VI, 9b-d; CH VIII-IX, 14a-16a; CH XVI 23d-24d; CH XIX, 26a-27a; CH XX, 31a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 77a; 78c-d; PART II, 102d-103a; 103c-104a; 114d-115a; 116c-d; 148c-153a; 157d-158a; 159a-c; PART III, 240a-b; PART IV, 247a-248d; 270c-d; 273a-c; 276c-277a; 278c; CONCLUSION, 280c-281a 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 48b-51a 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI 1a-32a,c esp ACT II, SC IV-ACT III, SC I 11b-16b, ACT IV, SC I [111-194] 21a-d / 2nd Henry VI 33a-68d esp ACT I, SC I 33b,d-36b, ACT II, SC I 43c-44c / 3rd Henry VI 69a-104d esp ACT V, SC VI-VII 103b-104d / Richard III, ACT V, SC III [237-270] 146b-c / Richard II 320a-351d esp ACT I, SC III [123-138] 324d-325a, ACT IV, SC I [107-157] 342c-343a / King John, ACT IV, SC III [140]-ACT V, SC I [79] 399a-400a / 1st Henry IV 434a-466d esp ACT IV, SC I [41-113] 459d-460b, ACT V, SC I [1-120] 460d-462a / 2nd Henry IV, ACT I, SC III [85-110] 473d-474a; ACT IV, SC I [30]-SC II [42] 487c-490a / Julius Caesar 568a-596a,c esp ACT II, SC I [112-183] 575d-576b, ACT III, SC I [78-110] 581b-c, [253-275] 583b 27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT I, SC III [75-137] 108d-109c / Macbeth, ACT IV, SC III [1-135] 303b-304d / Antony and Cleopatra, ACT I, SC III [41-53] 315a-b; ACT II, SC VI 329b-d / Coriolanus, ACT I, SC I [1-226] 351a-353d / Cymbeline, ACT III, SC I 463c-464c 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 7a 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 7b; 18c-19d; 20c-21c / Civil Government, CH XVIII, SECT 203-210 72a-73c; CH XIX, SECT 224-243 76d-81d 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 338a-339a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK V, 28b-29a; BK VIII, 54b-c; BK X, 65b; BK XV, 112d-113a; BK XIX, 137c; 139b-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 361b-362a / Social Contract, BK III, 411b-c; 417b-c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 269d-271a; BK V, 308b-c; 348a-352a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 35a; 48d-49a; 69a-76a esp 69a-b, 71c-d, 73b-c; 111b-112c passim, esp 112b; 113c; 116b-c; 127a-c; 159b,d-178d passim, esp 159b,d; 267a-272a,c passim; 324d-326b esp 326b; 330a-335c esp 334b-d; 420b-422d esp 420c-d; 446b-447d; 449d-450a; 453c-454c; 652d-654c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 51a-53a; 113d-115a; 466a-b 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: 1a-3b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 9-10 47a-53a; NUMBER 16 66c-68d; NUMBER 27, 95b-c; NUMBER 58, 181d-182a; NUMBER 60, 184b-d 43 MILL: Liberty, 321b / Representative Government, 425b-426b; 428b-431a passim 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART III, 295d-296c; PART IV, 345a-b 50 MARX: Capital, 7b; 377c-378d esp 378c 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 416c-d 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 680b-683b 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 787c-788d esp 787d-788a

5. The effects of war

5a. The moral consequences of war: its effects on the happiness and virtue of men and on the welfare of women and children

OLD TESTAMENT: II Kings, 25—(D) IV Kings, 25 / II Chronicles, 36:17-21—(D) II Paralipomenon, 36:17-21 / Jeremiah, 39-40; 52—(D) Jeremias, 39-40; 52 APOCRYPHA: I Maccabees, 1:20-64—(D) OT, I Machabees, 1:21-67 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK VI [369-502] 43d-45a; BK XVII [1-137] 130a-131c; BK XXIV 171a-179d esp [689-781] 178c-179c 5 AESCHYLUS: Persians [101-124] 16c-d; [515-597] 20c-21b / Seven Against Thebes [78-368] 28a-31b / Agamemnon [183-257] 54a-d; [320-350] 55c-d; [399-474] 56b-57b; [855-905] 61b-c 5 SOPHOCLES: Ajax [1185-1222] 153b-c 5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants 258a-269a,c / Trojan Women 270a-281a,c / Andromache [91-116] 316a-b / Hecuba 353a-364a,c 5 ARISTOPHANES: Peace [601-656] 532d-533c / Lysistrata 583a-599a,c esp [587-599] 590d-591a 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 20d-21a; BK III, 121c-d 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 392a-b; 398c-d; BK III, 436d-438b; BK VII, 545d-546a; 559b-d; 562c-563a,c 7 PLATO: Laws, BK I, 648b-c; BK IV, 677d-678c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK VII, CH 15 [1334ª12-b7] 539a-b 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK II [268-804] 131b-146b 14 PLUTARCH: Caesar, 590d-591a; 592a-c; 598c 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 12b-13b; 18a-c / Histories, BK I, 202b-c; BK II, 217c-218a; 226c-d; 229b-c; BK III, 248c-d; 250a-251a; 255b-c; 265a-b; BK IV, 266b-c 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK III, CH 13 174c-175b; BK XIX, CH 7 515a-c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 40, A 2, ANS 579b-580c 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, VI [58-151] 61b-62c 22 CHAUCER: Knight’s Tale [859-1004] 174a-176b / Tale of Melibeus, PAR 12 404a-b 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III, 140c-141c; 143a-144c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 95a-97a; 504c-509a 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT IV, SC V-VII 23d-26a / 2nd Henry VI, ACT V, SC II [31-65] 67d-68a / 3rd Henry VI, ACT I, SC IV 74c-76b; ACT II, SC V 81d-83a / Richard III, ACT V, SC V [16-41] 148a,c / Henry V, ACT III, SC III 545d-546b; ACT IV, SC I [95-246] 552c-554a; ACT V, SC II [24-67] 563c-564a / Julius Caesar, ACT III, SC I [262-275] 583b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XVI, SECT 180-189 67b-69b passim 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 448b-451a 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 355c; 364c-d / Political Economy, 380a-d / Social Contract, BK III, 418a-b [fn 1] 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 301b-c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 35a; 112d-113a; 409b-d; 509b-510c; 511c-512a; 573b-574a; 627d-628a 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 397c-398a; 437b-440a,c passim; 551d-553a 42 KANT: Science of Right, 454a-c / Judgement, 504a-b 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [80-94] 2b-3a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 324 107a-d; ADDITIONS, 193 150c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 12b-14b; 50d; 55c-59d; BK II, 76a-b; 90c-91a; 102d-104a; 109d-110a,c; BK III, 128d-131c; 141d-142a; 155b-156d; 162b-164a,c; BK IV, 179b-180d; BK V, 221d-222b; 225c-228b; 232a-234a; BK VII, 275a-276b; BK IX, 342a; BK X, 410c-421c; 442c-443b; 467a-468a,c; BK XI, 475b-476c; 485a-496a; 497c-513d; 527b-532a,c; BK XII, 537b-562d; EPILOGUE II, 675d-676a 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK VI, 166c-167b 54 FREUD: War and Death, 756d-761a esp 756d-757a, 757c, 760d-761a; 764c-d; 766c

5b. The political consequences of war: its effects on different forms of government

5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights [790-809] 479c-480a / Peace [601-656] 532d-533c 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK III, 118a-c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK VIII 564a-593a,c esp 575c-576c, 577b-d, 579c-581c, 582a-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK V, CH 3 [1303ª2-12] 504b-c; CH 7 [1306ᵇ32-1307ª2] 508d; CH 11 [1313ª28-29] 516c / Athenian Constitution, CH 29 566b-d 14 PLUTARCH: Camillus, 106b; 119a-120c / Coriolanus, 179c-d; 186d / Flamininus, 307d-308a / Caius Marius 332b,d-354a,c / Sulla 368a-387a,c / Caesar, 590d-591a 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 1b-c 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XVI 65d-70c esp SECT 175 65d; CH XIX, SECT 211 73d-74a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK IX, 60b-61a; 61b-c; BK X, 64a-65b 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 380a-d / Social Contract, BK II, 403c-404a; BK III, 418a-b [fn 1] 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 452d-453a,c 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [80-81] 2b 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 9 [267-270] 13d; AMENDMENTS, XIV, SECT 2-4 18d-19a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 8, 45a-47a; NUMBER 16, 68d; NUMBER 18-20 71a-78b passim; NUMBER 41, 133b-d; NUMBER 58, 181d-182a 54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 882d

5c. The economic consequences of war: the cost of war and the by-products of war

5 ARISTOPHANES: Peace [601-656] 532d-533c; [1197-1264] 540a-d 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VII, 235c-236a; 249d 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 349b-d; 354d-355a; BK II, 390c-391c; 399b-401b; BK III, 420d; BK VII, 551b-d; BK VIII, 564a-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK V, CH 7 [1306ᵇ32-1307ª2] 508d 14 PLUTARCH: Coriolanus, 179c-180b 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK I, 213d-214a; BK II, 229b-c; 236d-237a; BK III, 250b-c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 504c-509a 26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT V, SC II [23-67] 563c-564a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XVI, SECT 180-184 67b-68d 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 225a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XIII, 100d-101a 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 380a-d / Social Contract, BK III, 418a-b [fn 1] 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK III, 181a,c; BK IV, 262a-c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 114a,c; 409c-d; 428b-d; 503d-504c; 510d-511c passim; 541d-542a; 584d 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 2b-c; 133c-d; 437c-438c; 452d-453a,c 42 KANT: Judgement, 586c-d 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [80-94] 2b-3a 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: VIII [155-167] 6d-7a 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS, XIV, SECT 4 19a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 11, 54b-c; NUMBER 25, 91a-b; NUMBER 30, 102d-103a; NUMBER 34, 110d-111b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XI, 490a; 500d-502a; BK XV, 634a-635a; EPILOGUE II, 675d-676a

6. The conception of war as a political means or instrument

6a. Conquest, empire, political expansion as ends of war

OLD TESTAMENT: Joshua, 6-12—(D) Josue, 6-12 / Judges, 18 APOCRYPHA: Judith, 1-2—(D) OT, Judith, 1-2 / I Maccabees, 1:16-24—(D) OT, I Machabees, 1:17-25 5 AESCHYLUS: Persians 15a-26d esp [852-908] 24b-d 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 16b-c; 46a; BK III, 118a-c; BK IV, 138d-159d passim; BK V, 161c-162b; 165a-166a; 169a-c; BK VI, 211a-b; BK VII-IX 214a-314a,c passim, esp BK VII, 214a-b, 214d-216b, BK IX, 305d-306a, 314a,c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 368a-371b esp 370d-371b; 384c-386c; BK II, 396b-c, 402d-404a; BK IV, 461d-462a; BK V, 504c-508a; BK VI, 510c-516b; 529b-c; 530d-532b, 533c 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 318c-319a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 7 [1255ᵇ38-39] 449c; CH 8 [1256ᵇ20-26] 450c; BK VII, CH 2 [1324ᵇ2-1325ª7] 528c-529a; CH 14 [1333ᵇ41-1334ª11] 538b-d 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK I [283-296] 110b-111a; BK VI [81-97] 213a-b; [845-853] 233b-234a; BK VIII [608-731] 275a-278b 14 PLUTARCH: Camillus, 108b-d / Pyrrhus, 319b-d; 320d-321a / Caesar, 599b-d 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK IV, 290a-c 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK IV, CH 14-15 196b-197a; BK V, CH 12, 216d-218a 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XXI, 31d-32d 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 91c; 440b-442d 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI 1a-32a,c / 2nd Henry VI 33a-68d / 3rd Henry VI 69a-104d / Henry V 532a-567a,c esp ACT I 533a-537b 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT IV, SC IV 58d-59c / Cymbeline, ACT III, SC I 463c-464c 30 BACON: New Atlantis, 204d-205a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XVI 65d-70c 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART I, 23a-26a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 3a; BK X 61b,d-68d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 359b; 364a-b / Political Economy, 380a-d / Social Contract, BK I, 389d-390d; BK II, 403c-404b; BK IV, 437d-438c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 245c-d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 2a-3c; 84d-86a; 98d-99d; 109b-110b; 121c-125d passim; 134a-b; 176b-c; 264d-265a; 398d; 414a-418c; 446b-c; 540b; 558a-c; 571b,d-572a 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 46d; 212c-d; 255a-288a,c passim, esp 255a-b, 288a,c; 343b; 347b,d-451c passim; 494b,d-505c passim, esp 496a, 505b-c; 539d-540d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 413d; 454a-455a esp 454b, 454d-455a 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: II 5b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 4-6 35a-41c passim; NUMBER 16, 66c-67a 43 MILL: Representative Government, 425b-426b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART I, 242d-243b; PART II, 275a-b; 276d-277a; 281d-282d; PART III, 297a-d; 299a-c; PART IV, 339d-340a; 357a-358b 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 292a-295a esp 294a-295a

6b. Liberty, justice, honor, peace as ends of war

OLD TESTAMENT: Numbers, 31:1-10 / Judges, 3-7; 14-16; 19-20 / II Samuel, 10—(D) II Kings, 10 / I Chronicles, 19—(D) I Paralipomenon, 19 / II Chronicles, 32:1-22—(D) II Paralipomenon, 32:1-22 APOCRYPHA: Judith—(D) OT, Judith / I Maccabees, 1-9; 14:29-37—(D) OT, I Machabees, 1-9; 14:29-37 / II Maccabees, 6-10—(D) OT, II Machabees, 6-10 4 HOMER: Iliad 3a-179d passim, esp BK II [155-368] 11c-13d, BK VI [390-465] 44a-d 5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants 258a-269a,c esp [286-358] 260d-261c, [513-565] 262d-263b 5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights [547-610] 476d-477d 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 1a-2b; BK III, 99c-100a; BK VII, 214a-216d; 218a-b; 239a-c; BK VIII, 287c-d 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I 349a-386d esp 378a-380a; BK II, 402c-404a; BK III, 430b-431b; 432a-434a; BK IV, 468a-469b; BK V, 504c-508a; BK VIII, 564c-d 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK X, CH 7 [1177ᵇ5-25] 432a-c / Politics, BK VII, CH 2 [1324ᵇ2-1325ª7] 528c-529a; CH 14 [1333ᵇ30]-CH 15 [1334ᵇ7] 538a-539b 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VI [845-853] 233b-234a 14 PLUTARCH: Flamininus 302b,d-313a,c 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, 34d-35c / Histories, BK IV, 290a-c 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK V, CH 12, 216d-218a; BK XV, CH 4 399c-400a; BK XIX, CH 12, 517c-d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 29, A 2, REP 2 531a-d; Q 40, A 1, ANS and REP 1,3 578a-579b 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH V 8a-c 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 35a-36c; 58a-59d; BK III, 131b,d-133b 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 95a-97b 26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT V, SC III [237-270] 146b-c / King John, ACT V, SC II [1-39] 400a-c / 2nd Henry IV, ACT IV, SC I 487b-489d / Henry V, ACT I 533a-537b 27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT II, SC II [188-213] 115c-d / Cymbeline, ACT III, SC I 463c-464c 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 145d-146a; PART II, 290c 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH III 28d-29d; CH XVI 65d-70c; CH XIX, SECT 224-243 76d-81d 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 225a; 448b-451a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK X, 61b,d-63d 38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK IV, 437d-438c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 269d-271a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 48d-49a; 71b-76a esp 73c; 144a-d; 420b-422d esp 420c-d; 535d-536b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 113d-115a; 127d-128a; 383c-384b; 443b-444a 42 KANT: Science of Right, 452a-455a esp 454d-455a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 28, 97c; NUMBER 46, 152b-153a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 334 109c / Philosophy of History, PART II, 274a-275a; 282d-283b; PART IV, 345a-b 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [6956-6963] 170b; [9855-9862] 239b 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 416c-d 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 33d-34c

7. The inevitability of war: the political necessity of military preparations

5 ARISTOPHANES: Peace [195-222] 528a-c; [1061-1086] 538b-c 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 41c-d; BK IV, 132a-b; BK VI, 192a-b 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 384c-386c; BK II, 389a-c; 396d-397a; 402c; 403c; BK III, 436d-437d; BK VI, 514b-c; 518a-520d 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 318c-319a; BK IV, 343b-c / Laws, BK I, 640d-641a; BK VI, 701b-702a; BK VIII, 732b-733b 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 6 [1265ª19-27] 460c; CH 7 [1267ª17-36] 462d-463a; BK IV, CH 4 [1291ª7-33] 490b-c; BK VII, CH 2 [1324ᵇ2-1325ª15] 528c-529a; CH 4 [1326ª22-24] 530b; CH 5 [1326ᵇ38]-CH 6 [1327ª17] 531a-d; CH 11 [1330ᵇ1-1331ª18] 535a-d; CH 14 [1333ᵇ41-1334ª11] 538b-d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 4 [1359ᵇ33-1360ª12] 600a-b 14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 59d-60b / Themistocles, 89b-d 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK IV, 64d-65a 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH III, 5c; CH XII, 18a; CH XIV 21b-22a; CH XVIII, 25a-b; CH XXI, 32a-d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 76d; 84c-86b; PART II, 114b-c; 157a 26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT II, SC IV [1-64] 541d-542c 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 40d 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK II [496-505] 122a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 2d-3a; BK X, 61b,d-62a; BK XIII, 100d-101a 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324c; 355b-c / Social Contract, BK II, 403c-404a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 304a-b 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 4b; 558a-b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 321b 42 KANT: Science of Right, 452c-d; 457a-458a,c / Judgement, 586a-587a 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [43-47] 2a 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: II 5b; VI-VII 6a-d; IX [173-177] 7a; [318-367] 8b-d 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 8 [192-196] 13a; [220-242] 13b-c; SECT 10 [314-320] 14b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 3-8 33b-47a passim, esp NUMBER 6, 39a; NUMBER 16, 68d; NUMBER 23-24 85a-89c passim, esp NUMBER 23, 85b; NUMBER 25, 90b-91d; NUMBER 28, 96c; NUMBER 34, 110a-d; NUMBER 41, 132c-135a passim; NUMBER 43, 141d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 326 107d-108a; PAR 333-334 109b-c / Philosophy of History, PART II, 278c-279b; PART III, 288c 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 428a-b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 12d-13a; 33d-34c; BK V, 220c-d; BK IX, 342a-344b 53 JAMES: Psychology, 717a-b 54 FREUD: War and Death, 755b-757a passim, esp 755c, 756c; 766c-d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 787a-788c esp 787b, 788b

8. The desirability of war: its moral and political benefits

4 HOMER: Iliad, BK XII [290-328] 85b-c 5 EURIPIDES: Trojan Women [386-405] 273b-c / Helen [36-41] 298b 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK III, 118a-c; BK VII, 215c-216b 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 378a-380a; 384c-386c; BK II, 403c-404a; BK VI, 514d; BK VIII, 564c-d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK VII, CH 2 [1324ᵇ2-1325ª7] 528c-529a; CH 14 [1333ᵇ41]-CH 15 [1334ª7] 538b-539b 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 38d-45b / Lycurgus-Numa, 62b-c; 64a,c / Camillus, 108b-c 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK II, 26b-c 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XXI, 31d-32d 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III, 129a-b 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 330b-331a 26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry IV, ACT IV, SC I [59-87] 487d-488a / Henry V, ACT IV, SC III [1-78] 555c-556c 27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT IV, SC V [233]-SC VI [9] 381d-382a 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK II [43-108] 112a-113b 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 448b-451a; 535a-b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 451c-453a,c esp 452c-453a,c; 505a-c 42 KANT: Judgement, 504a-b; 586a-587a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 324 107a-d; ADDITIONS, 188 149b-c / Philosophy of History, PART II, 281d-282d; PART IV, 318a 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [860-867] 22b; [884-902] 23a; PART II [9835-9850] 239a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XI, 517d-518a

9. The folly and futility of war

5 SOPHOCLES: Ajax [1185-1222] 153b-c 5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [734-749] 264d; [949-954] 266d / Helen [1151-1164] 309a-b 5 ARISTOPHANES: Acharnians 455a-469a,c / Peace 526a-541d / Lysistrata 583a-599a,c 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 16b-c; 20d-21a; BK VII, 216d-218a; 219d-220a; BK IX, 305d-306a 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 402c; BK IV, 461b-c 7 PLATO: Seventh Letter, 813d-814b 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK XI [242-375] 334b-338a; BK XII [1-53] 354a-355b 14 PLUTARCH: Marcellus, 254d-256b 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 17b 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK III, CH 10 172d-173c; BK IV, CH 3 190a-c; BK XV, CH 4 399c-400a 22 CHAUCER: Tale of Melibeus, PAR 53-54 425b-426a 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 54a-b; BK III, 113d 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 225c-227a; 504c-508a 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT IV, SC IV 58d-59c 32 MILTON: Lord Gen. Fairfax 68b-69a / Paradise Lost, BK II [496-505] 122a; BK XI [634-707] 313a-314b; [759-803] 315b-316b 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART II, 77a-78a; PART IV, 149b-152a 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 355c; 364c-d / Political Economy, 380a-d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 615a-b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 133a; 509d-510a,c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 457a-458a,c / Judgement, 586a-d 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 12b-14b; 50d; BK II, 80b-c; 83d-86a; 88a-89b; 95d-96c; 109d-110a,c; BK III, 141d-142a; 155b-156d; 157d-158b; 161b-164a,c; BK IV, 179b-180d; BK V, 208c-210b; 225c-228b; 232a-234a; BK IX, 342a; BK X, 401d-402b; 464b 54 FREUD: War and Death 755a-766d esp 756d-757d, 759d-760a, 766c-d

10. The military arts and the military profession: their role in the state

6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 85a-b; BK IV, 132a-b 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 395d-399a 7 PLATO: Laches, 27d-29a esp 28a-c / Protagoras, 44c-d / Euthydemus, 75a-b / Republic, BK II, 319a-320c; BK III, 339b-341d; BK V, 366c-367b; BK VII, 391b-392b / Critias, 480a; 481a-b / Sophist, 552d-553a; 554c / Laws, BK I, 640d-643d; BK IV, 677d-678c; BK VI, 699a-c; BK XII, 784d-786b / Seventh Letter, 812d 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 2 339b-d / Politics, BK I, CH 8 [1256ᵇ20-26] 450c; BK II, CH 9 [1271ᵇ1-7] 467c-d; BK IV, CH 3 [1289ᵇ33-40] 488d-489a; BK VI, CH 7 [1321ª5-27] 524c-525a; CH 8 [1322ª29-b6] 526a-b; BK VII, CH 6 [1327ᵇ40-a16] 531c-d; CH 9 [1329ª3-17] 533b-c; CH 10 533d-534d passim; CH 14 [1333ᵇ41-1334ª11] 538b-d / Athenian Constitution, CH 61 580d-581b 14 PLUTARCH: Fabius, 142c-d / Aemilius Paulus, 214d / Pompey, 509d-510a / Galba, 859a-b 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 6b-15a / Histories, BK I, 190b-c; 191b-c; 194a-c; 195c-197d; 198c-201b; 210d-212d; BK II, 215c; 239c-240a 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XIV 21b-22a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 115d 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 145b-147d; PART II, 280b-c 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 54a-b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XI, SECT 139 57c-58a 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 237b-238a; 448b-451a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK V, 31c-32b; BK XI, 74b-d; 82d-83a; BK XIII, 100d-101a; BK XIX, 143c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324c; 361a-b / Political Economy, 380a-d / Social Contract, BK IV, 437d-438c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 301a-309a,c esp 303d-305c, 308c-309a,c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 4b-8b esp 4b-5a; 42b,d; 86a-d; 193c-194a; 226a-b; 246d-248b; 284a-c; 633b-c; 639a 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 120a; 311d-312a; 321b-325a esp 324b; 389b-390b; 508c-510a,c 42 KANT: Judgement, 504a-b 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [58-68] 2a-b 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: VI [107-123] 6b-c; VII 6d; IX [290-349] 8a-c passim 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 8 [226-253] 13b-c; ARTICLE II, SECT 2 [409-413] 15a; AMENDMENTS, II-III, V [636-641] 17b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 4, 36a-b; NUMBER 8 44c-47a; NUMBER 22, 81c-d; NUMBER 24-26 87b-94d passim; NUMBER 28-29 96c-101a; NUMBER 41, 132c-135a passim; NUMBER 46, 152b-153a 43 MILL: Representative Government, 425c-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART I, 242d-243b; PART III, 288c 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 79a-b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK III, 137c-140c; BK V, 221b-d; BK VII, 275a-276b; BK IX, 358b-365c; BK X, 440c-443b; 449c; EPILOGUE II, 685d-686a 54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 674b-676b passim, esp 674d-675a

10a. The formation of military policy: the relation between the military and the statesman or prince

6 HERODOTUS: History, BK III, 79a-c; BK VII, 225c-d 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 353b; 369a-370d; BK II, 390c-391b; 396d-397a; 402a-404d; BK III, 419b-c; BK V, 500c; BK VI, 518a-520d; 528b-c; 533a-534d; BK VII, 545b-c 7 PLATO: Republic, BK III, 339b-341d / Statesman, 604c-605d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK III, CH 14 [1285ª3-16] 483a-b; [1285ᵇ4-28] 483d-484a; CH 15 [1285ª34-1286ª5] 484b; BK V, CH 7 [1307ª2-4] 508d-509a; CH 9 [1309ª33-b9] 511c-d; BK VII, CH 9 [1329ª3-17] 533b-c; CH 14 [1333ᵇ41-1334ª11] 538b-d / Athenian Constitution, CH 26, PAR 1-2 564d-565a; CH 61 580d-581b / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 4 [1359ᵇ19-1360ª11] 599d-600b 14 PLUTARCH: Caius Marius, 344c-345a / Phocion, 607b-d / Demetrius, 742d-743b 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK II, 223c-d; 233d-234b; BK III, 256d-257a 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XII-XIV 17d-22a; CH XVIII, 25a-b; CH XIX-XX, 27b-31c; CH XXI, 32a-d; CH XXIV 34c-35a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 103b; 159a-c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 327d-329d 26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT I, SC II [136-220] 535b-536b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VIII, SECT 107-110 49b-50d; CH XIII, SECT 145-148 58d-59b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK V, 31c-32b; BK XI, 74b-d; 80b-c; BK XIII, 100d-101a 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 380a-d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 307a-b; 308b-c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 25d-26d; 30a-b; 42b,d-43c; 50b-c; 56a; 63a-64c; 76c-77b; 78c-79a; 242c-244a; 245d-247c 42 KANT: Judgement, 504a-b 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [58-61] 2a; [65-67] 2b 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: VII 6d; IX [290-349] 8a-c 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE II, SECT 2 [409-413] 15a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 4, 36a-b; NUMBER 8, 45b-c; NUMBER 74, 221c-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 329 108c; ADDITIONS, 163 144c / Philosophy of History, PART II, 281d-282a; PART III, 301c-302a; PART IV, 324b; 325a-b; 359a-b; 366b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK III, 144c; 146d-153d-155a; BK V, 208c-210b; BK VIII, 309b-c; BK IX, 346a-365c passim, esp 352d-353a, 355b, 361b-d; BK X, 404c-405a; BK XII, 534d-537b; BK XIII, 565c-566d; BK XV, 610d-611a; BK XV, 627d-630a

10b. Different types of soldiery: mercenaries, volunteers, conscripts, militia

4 HOMER: Iliad, BK III [183-277] 11d-12d 5 ARISTOPHANES: Peace [1172-1190] 539c-540a 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VI, 187d-188b; BK VII, 227c-230d; 249b-d; 252b; 253d-254b; BK VIII, 280d-281a; BK IX, 294c-295c; 302d-303a 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK IV, 478d-479b 7 PLATO: Critias, 480a; 484b-c / Laws, BK I, 642c-643a; BK III, 674c 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK III, CH 8 [1116ª15-23] 362b-363a / Politics, BK VI, CH 7 [1321ª5-9] 524c-d; CH 8 [1322ª1-6] 526b; BK VII, CH 6 [1327ᵇ40-a18] 531c-d / Athenian Constitution, CH 26, PAR 1 564d; CH 42 572b-d; CH 61 580d-581b 14 PLUTARCH: Pelopidas, 238b-239c / Agesilaus, 484b-c; 498a-b / Galba 859a-869d / Otho 869b,d-876d 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK II, 232d-233a; BK IV, 271d-272c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 188, A 3 677a-678b 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XII-XIII 17d-21a; CH XX, 30a-c 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry IV, ACT IV, SC I [12-52] 458c-d / 2nd Henry IV, ACT III, SC II [101-311] 484d-486d 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART II, 80a-b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XI, 82d-83a; BK XV, 112d-113a 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324c; 361b / Political Economy, 380b-d / Social Contract, BK IV, 437d-438c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 301a-309a,c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 4b-5a; 6b-d; 94d-95a; 247d-248c; 480a-b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 324b-c; 389b; 488a-b; 490d-491a 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [84-87] 2b 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: VI [117-123] 6c 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 8 [232-242] 13c; AMENDMENTS, II-III 17b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 8, 45b-46d; NUMBER 22, 81c-d; NUMBER 24, 89a-b; NUMBER 25, 91a-b; NUMBER 28-29 96c-101a; NUMBER 46, 152b-153a 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 281d-282a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART III, 298a; PART IV, 325a-b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 31a-32a; BK II, 77b-c; 94a-96c; BK III, 131c-135c; BK V, 228b-230b; 233b-234a; BK IX, 366b-c; BK XIV, 590d-596c; BK XV, 621b-626d; EPILOGUE II, 685d-686a

10c. The military virtues: the qualities of the professional soldier; education for war

4 HOMER: Iliad 3a-179d esp BK IV [422-445] 28a-b, BK XI [46-154] 88c-89d, [206-327] 90b-91c, [723-820] 95d-96d 5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [860-917] 266a-b / Heracles Mad [140-205] 366b-d / Phoenician Maidens [697-753] 384a-d 5 ARISTOPHANES: Acharnians [566-622] 461c-462a; [1071-1233] 467d-469a,c / Knights [547-610] 476d-477d / Wasps [1060-1121] 520c-521b / Peace [1172-1190] 539c-540a 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK V, 175b; BK VI, 187d; BK VII, 232d-233d; BK VIII, 264c; BK IX, 314a,c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 370a-c; 379b-c; BK II, 389d-390b; 395d-396a; 396d-397a; 397d-398c; 411b-412c; BK IV, 449b-c; 457b-c; 478d-479b; BK V, 501a-b; BK VI, 527b-528a; BK VII, 555b; BK VIII, 589d-590a 7 PLATO: Laches 26a-37d / Apology, 205d-206a / Republic, BK II-IV, 319a-345a; BK IV, 347a-d; BK V, 366a-367b; BK VII, 391b-392b / Critias, 481a-b / Statesman, 605d-608d / Laws, BK I, 642c-643a; 644b-c; 648b-c; BK III, 674c; BK VII, 716b-717c; BK VIII, 732b-735a; BK XII, 784d-786b 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK III, CH 6 361a-c; CH 8 [1116ª15-b23] 362b-363a / Politics, BK V, CH 9 [1309ª33-b9] 511c-d; BK VI, CH 7 [1321ª22-26] 524d-525a; BK VII, CH 11 [1330ᵇ33-1331ª9] 535c 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VIII [508-519] 272b-273a; BK IX [590-620] 295a-b 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 41a-45b / Fabius 141a-154a,c / Coriolanus 174b,d-193a,c esp 175b / Pelopidas, 232a-233a; 238b-239c; 244c-245a / Marcellus 246b,d-261a,c / Marcellus-Pelopidas 261a-262d / Aristides-Marcus Cato 290b,d-292d / Philopoemen 293a-302a,c / Flamininus, 303a-310d passim / Flamininus-Philopoemen 313a-314a,c / Caius Marius, 334d-335a / Sulla, 374d-375b / Lucullus 400a-421a,c passim / Sertorius 457b,d-470d / Alexander 540b,d-576d / Caesar, 583a-584b / Cato the Younger, 623a-b / Antony 748a-779d esp 749b, 753d-754a, 764a-b / Aratus 826a-846a,c / Galba, 859a-b 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 6b-9d; BK III, 49d-50a; BK XI, 104d-105a; BK XII, 134a-c / Histories, BK I, 190b-c; 194a-c; 201a-b; 202c-203a; 210d-211a; 211c-212b; BK II, 216a-b; 219b-c; 232d-233a; 239c-240a; BK III, 246d-247c; 248b-c; 254d; BK IV, 266c-d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 105, A 3, REP 5-6 316a-318b; PART II-II, Q 40, A 2 579b-580c; Q 188, A 3, REP 1 677a-678b 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XIV 21b-22a; CH XVIII, 25a-b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 77a; 86b; PART II, 115d; 159a-b 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK II, 83a 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 20d-22a; 22d-24a; 25c-26d; 95d-97b; 302b-306a; 327d-329d; 336c-337b; 532d-533a 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT IV, SC V-VI 23d-25a / 3rd Henry VI, ACT V, SC IV 101a-d / King John, ACT V, SC I [44-76] 399d-400a / Henry V, ACT III, SC I 543d-544b 27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT III, SC I [33-50] 113d-114a / Antony and Cleopatra, ACT I, SC IV [55-80] 316c-d; ACT III, SC I 327b-c; ACT IV, SC VIII 340a-c / Coriolanus, ACT II, SC II [86-133] 365a-c / Cymbeline, ACT V, SC III [1-63] 479d-480c 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 147b-c; PART II, 203a-b; 280b-c 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 23a 32 MILTON: Lord Gen. Fairfax 68b-69a 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 449b-451a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VI, 39a; BK XVI, 117b-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 324c; 335a-b; 366a-b / Political Economy, 375a; 376c-377a; 380b-d / Social Contract, BK IV, 437d-438c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 303d-304b 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 4d-5c; 50b-c; 86c; 94d; 116b-c; 118d; 136b-137a; 246d-247d; 369d-376a passim, esp 370a-c, 375b-c; 457a,c; 639a 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 28c-29a; 120a-c; 127d-128a; 223a-c; 311d-312a; 323a-325a; 389d-390a; 509a-d; 543d-545c; 548d-550b passim 42 KANT: Judgement, 504a-b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 25, 91a-b; NUMBER 29, 99b-100a 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 384b-c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 328 108b-c / Philosophy of History, PART II, 276d-277a; PART IV, 343d-344a 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [9482-9505] 230a-b; [10,407-422] 253b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 21d-22b; 31a-32a; 33d-34c; BK II, 67d-68c; 77b-c; 78c-79a; 94a-96c; BK III, 131c-135c; 137c-140c; 150c; BK IV, 171c-173d; BK V, 208c-210b; 221b-d; 228b-230b; 232a-234a; BK VII, 275a-276b; BK IX, 365b-c; 366b-c; 369a-372a; BK X, 400b-c; 421c-426a; 440c-443b; 451c-456a; 457a-c; 459d-461d; 467a-468a,c; BK XI, 481a-482b; 512b-513b; BK XII, 554b-d; BK XIII, 569d-570a; 582a-584b; BK XIV, 589c-596c; BK XV, 621b-626d 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK VI, 153d-157b

10d. The principles of strategy and tactics: the military genius

OLD TESTAMENT: Judges, 7 APOCRYPHA: Judith, 7:8-31—(D) OT, Judith, 7:8-28 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK IV [292-325] 26d-27b; BK VII [433-463] 50b-c; BK VIII [489-565] 56a-d; BK XI 82a-87a,c passim; BK XIII [125-154] 89c-d; [295-327] 91b-c / Odyssey, BK VIII [499-520] 227b 5 EURIPIDES: Rhesus 203a-211d / Suppliants [647-730] 264a-d / Trojan Women [511-567] 274b-d / Heracles Mad [140-205] 366b-d / Phoenician Maidens [697-753] 384a-d; [1086-1199] 387d-388c 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 4b-c; 6a-b; 13d-14a; 18c-19a; 19d-20a; 37a; 39c-d; 41c-42b; 43a-b; 46a-d; BK III, 122a-123c; BK IV, 124b-d; 141c; 144d-148d; 158d-159b; BK V, 162b; 166d-167b; 176c-d; 184b-c; BK VI, 200a-b; 207c-208a; BK VII, 216b-d; 225a-c; 237b-c; 239a-c; 247d-248b; 253a-258d passim; BK VIII, 264d-265a; 276d-287d passim; BK IX, 288b-291a; 293b-c; 294c-295c; 297a-d; 298c-299d; 308d-309c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 352a-b; 361b-c; 363d-365a; 374a-378a passim; 378d-379a; 384d-386b; BK II, 387a-388b; 389d-391b; 392b-393c; 402a-404d; 407b-409a; 409d-410c; 411d-412c; BK III, 423c-424a; 429b-c; 439d-440d; 444c-445a; BK IV, 447c-d; 448b-450c; 454a-456d; 465a-c; 478d-479b; BK V, 483c-485b; 500a-c; BK VI, 509a-b; 515a-516b; 518c-519b; 519d-520b; 520d-521a; 522a-523a; 526b-528c; BK VII 538a-563a,c esp 540c-541d, 551a-552a; BK VIII, 570c-d 7 PLATO: Laches, 32a-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 1 339a-b passim / Politics, BK V, CH 9 [1309ª33-b9] 511c-d; BK VI, CH 7 [1321ª5-27] 524c-525a; BK VII, CH 5 [1326ᵇ38]-CH 6 [1327ª18] 531a-d; CH 11 535a-d 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK II [13-198] 124b-129b; BK IX [25-76] 279b-281a 14 PLUTARCH: Themistocles, 93a-95a / Camillus 102b,d-121a,c / Pericles, 130d-139a / Fabius 141a-154a,c / Fabius-Pericles, 154a-d / Alcibiades 155b,d-174d passim / Coriolanus, 186b-187d / Timoleon 195a-213d / Aemilius Paulus 214a-230d / Marcellus 246b,d-261a,c / Aristides, 266b-273c / Philopoemen 293a-302a,c / Flamininus, 303a-310d passim / Caius Marius, 336b-344c / Lysander, 357c-358d / Sulla, 374a-385b passim / Lucullus 400a-421a,c / Nicias 423a-438d / Sertorius 457b,d-470d esp 464c-d / Eumenes 470b,d-479d / Agesilaus, 498a-d / Pompey, 528c-534d / Agesilaus-Pompey, 539b-540c / Alexander, 547b-548a; 549c-d; 555d-556b / Caesar 577a-604d / Cleomenes, 663c-667d / Antony, 770a-773c / Marcus Brutus, 816d-824a,c / Artaxerxes, 848b-849b / Otho 869b,d-876d 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 15a-c; BK II, 26b-28c esp 26c-27a; BK III, 63a-b; BK XIII, 134a-136c / Histories, BK I, 210b-d; BK III, 247a-c; 249a; 258a-b; BK IV, 275a-c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 40, A 3 580d-581b 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH X 16a-d; CH XII-XIV 17d-22a; CH XX 30a-31c 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 31d-35a; 39c-44a; 50c-52d; 56b-57c; BK IV, 276d-277d; 280a-282d 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 11b-13c; 20d-22a; 53a-c; 133b-d; 136b-143c; 354b-358b 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT II, SC I [50-77] 9b-d; ACT IV, SC IV 23b-d / 1st Henry IV, ACT IV, SC III [1-29] 459b-c / 2nd Henry IV, ACT I, SC III 472d-474a / Henry V, ACT III, SC I [59-149] 544d-545c / Julius Caesar, ACT IV, SC III [196-225] 590c-d; ACT V 591d-596a,c 27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT I, SC III [197-210] 110a-b / Antony and Cleopatra, ACT III, SC VII [21]-SC X [37] 331c-333a 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 23a-26a 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 236b-238a; 440a-447a; 451b-453a 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 241a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK IX, 58b,d-61a; 61b-d; BK X, 65d-68d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 5c-6b; 47c-d; 75a-c; 85a-d; 94d; 116d-121c passim; 168b-174d passim; 176d-178b; 265c-271b passim; 281b-287d passim; 334a-338a; 364d-378d passim; 420d-427a passim, esp 426b-427a; 431a-d; 471c-489d passim; 563a-566b esp 564d; 584b-585d esp 585a 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 2d-26a passim; 53b-66c passim, esp 55a-c, 60a-62b, 64b-65a; 126d-131d; 256a; 290b-291c; 293d-294d; 311d-312a; 356c-360b passim; 372d-373d esp 373c-d; 394b-401d passim; 432a-433c; 496a-501c esp 500c-d; 545c-551b passim, esp 547d-548d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 454a-c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 8, 44c-45d 43 MILL: Representative Government, 356b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART I, 242d-243b; PART II, 281d-282d; PART III, 297a-d; 298a-b; PART IV, 343d-344a; 366b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 52c-53c; 54c-55c; BK II, 74a-81b; 83d-86a; 88a-89b; 96c-110a,c; BK III, 142d-164a,c; BK V, 208b-210b; BK IX, 358b-365c; BK X, 389a-391c; 405a-406c; 421c-426a; 430b-432c; 438b-439a; 440c-450a; 456a-461d; BK XI, 470d-475a; BK XII, 536b; BK XIII, 563a-575a; BK XIII-XIV, 582a-590c; BK XIV, 609a-613d; BK XV, 618b-622c; 626d-630a; EPILOGUE II, 685d-686b

10e. The rise of naval power and its role in war

5 AESCHYLUS: Persians [350-432] 19a-d 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 6a-b; BK VII, 239a-240d; 247a-251b; BK VIII, 260a-276d 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 350a-353b; 355b-c; 356b-357a; 360d-363a; 367c-368a; 369b-370a; 372c-d; 377c-378a; 385b-386b; BK II, 402d-403b; 409d-410c; 411d-412c; BK III, 420d; 435d-436b; BK IV, 452d-453c; BK VI, 517b-d; 520d-521c; BK VII, 547d-548b 7 PLATO: Laws, BK IV, 677a-678c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 12 [1274ª13-14] 470d; BK V, CH 4 [1304ª22-24] 505d; BK VI, CH 7 [1321ª5-16] 524c-d; CH 8 [1322ª1-6] 526b; BK VII, CH 6 531b-d esp [1327ᵇ40-a18] 531c-d / Athenian Constitution, CH 26, PAR 1 564d 14 PLUTARCH: Themistocles 88a-102a,c / Alcibiades, 166c-173c / Lysander, 357c-358d / Antony, 770a-773c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XIX, 144b; BK XXI, 165d-166a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 7d-8b; 176d-178a; 396d-397a 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 4b-c; 321c-322b; 343b-344a; 430d-433b; 547d-548c 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: IX [275-367] 8a-d passim 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 8 [229] 13c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 4, 36b-c; NUMBER 11, 54b-55c; NUMBER 24, 89c; NUMBER 41, 134c-135a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART II, 262c-d; 275a-b; 277b-c; PART III, 298a

10f. The development of weapons: their kinds and uses

6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VII, 227c-232b; BK VIII, 268c-d; BK IX, 301d-302a 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 407c-d; BK IV, 472a-b 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK IV, CH 3 [1289ᵇ26-40] 488d-489a; BK VI, CH 7 [1321ª5-27] 524c-525a; CH 8 [1322ª1-6] 526b; BK VII, CH 11 [1330ᵇ32-1331ª18] 535c-d 12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK II [642-653] 38b-c; BK V [1241-1251] 77b; [1281-1349] 77d-78c 14 PLUTARCH: Camillus, 119c-120b / Marcellus, 252a-255a / Philopoemen, 296b-d / Caius Marius, 343a-344c / Crassus, 449a-451a / Demetrius, 733b-734a; 743b-c 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK II, 26c-27a; BK III, 56a-b; BK XII, 113c; 120a / Histories, BK I, 210b-d; BK III, 247a-c; BK IV, 273a-275c 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XXVI, 37b-c 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 32a-b; BK III, 127d-128b; BK IV, 304a-305a 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 140c-141c; 193a-194b; 436a-b 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 147a-d 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK VI [482-506] 206b-207a 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART II, 77a-78a 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 304a-b; 509a-510b 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 304d-305b; 308c-309a,c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 5d-6a; 6c-d; 94c; 260d-261a; 368c-d; 661c-662a 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 4a-b; 20d; 64d; 291d-292c; 322b-d; 394d-395c; 482d-483a; 509d-510a,c; 515c; 542b-543a; 545d-546c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART IV, 343d-344a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK X, 429b 54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 882d-883a

10g. The making of truces or alliances as a military device

OLD TESTAMENT: Joshua, 9—(D) Josue, 9 APOCRYPHA: I Maccabees, 8—(D) OT, I Machabees, 8 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 6a-c; 15d-16a; BK IV, 144b-d; BK V, 180c-d; BK VI, 187b-c; BK VII, 240d-247b; BK IX, 289a-290b; 310d-311a 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 356d-360d; 371b-372d; 378a-380d; BK III, 418d-420c; BK IV, 450d-452d; 457c-d: 461b-463a; 476a-477a; BK V, 485d-508a,c passim, esp 489a-b; BK VI, 522d-523a; 528a-b 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK IV, 286c-287c 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XXI, 32a-d 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 11b-13c 26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry IV, ACT IV, SC II 489d-491b 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART I, 24b-25b 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 448b-453a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 95c-96a; 495d-496b; 504d-507a; 543b-c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 428a-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART III, 297b-c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK III, 83d-86a; 92c-93d; BK V, 208d-209a; BK VIII, 307d-309c; BK IX, 350d-354a; BK XIII, 565a-b; 582a

11. The nature, causes, and conditions of peace

OLD TESTAMENT: Leviticus, 26:3-6 / Numbers, 6:22-26 / Deuteronomy, 20:10-11 / I Kings, 4:20-25—(D) III Kings, 4:20-25 / I Chronicles, 22:9—(D) I Paralipomenon, 22:9 / Psalms, 29:11; 37:11; 72:1-7; 119:165; 147:14—(D) Psalms, 28:10; 36:11; 71:1-7; 118:165; 147:14 / Proverbs, 16:7 / Ecclesiastes, 3:8 / Isaiah, 2:4; 9:6-7; 26:12; 32:17; 45:7; 48:18,22; 54:13; 59:8—(D) Isaias, 2:4; 9:6-7; 26:12; 32:17; 45:7; 48:18,22; 54:13; 59:8 / Jeremiah, 33:6—(D) Jeremias, 33:6 / Ezekiel, 34:25; 37:26—(D) Ezechiel, 34:25; 37:26 / Micah, 4:3—(D) Micheas, 4:3 / Zechariah, 9:10—(D) Zacharias, 9:10 NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:9 / Luke, 2:13-14 5 AESCHYLUS: Eumenides [976-987] 91a 5 ARISTOPHANES: Acharnians 455a-469a,c passim / Peace 526a-541d esp [289-520] 529b-531d, [974-1016] 537b-c / Lysistrata 583a-599a,c 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 6a-b; BK IV, 138b-c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 366d-367a; BK IV, 451d; 462a-b; BK V, 485d-486a; 488d-489b 7 PLATO: Laws, BK I, 640d-644a 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK IV, CH 5, 230a-b 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK I [283-296] 110b-111a; BK VI [845-853] 233b-234a; BK VIII [608-731] 275a-278b; BK XII [172-211] 358b-359b; [830-840] 376a-b 14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius 49a-61d esp 59c-60b / Nicias, 427c-d 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK III, CH 9-10 172b-173c; BK V, CH 12, 216d-218a; BK XIV, CH 1 376b,d-377a; BK XV, CH 4 399c-400a: BK XIX, CH 11-17 516d-523a; CH 26 528d-529a 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 29 530b-533a; Q 45, A 6 602b-603c 22 CHAUCER: Tale of Melibeus, PAR 53-60 425b-427b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 85b-c; 86b-87b; 91a-96b esp 95c-96b; PART II, 102d 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 299d-300c 26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III, ACT V, SC V [15-41] 148a,c / Henry V, ACT V, SC II [23-67] 563c-564a 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 145d-146a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XIX, SECT 228 77d-78a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XX, 146b 38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK II, 403c-404a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 267c-d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 4a-b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 338c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 454c-458a,c esp 454c, 455a-456a, 457a-458a,c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 43, 142c 43 MILL: Representative Government, 426a-b 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 428a-b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 12d-13a; BK V, 220c-d 54 FREUD: War and Death, 761b-c

11a. Law and government as indispensable conditions of civil peace: the political community as the unit of peace

5 AESCHYLUS: Eumenides [681-710] 88b-c 7 PLATO: Seventh Letter, 806d-807b 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253ª29-39] 446d 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK I [254-296] 110a-111a; BK VI [845-853] 233b-234a; BK VIII [306-336] 267a-268a; BK XII [172-211] 358b-359b 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 17 522b-523a; CH 26 528d-529a 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 95, A I, ANS 226c-227c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 84c-86b; PART II, 99a-101a; 104b-d; 112b-d; 131b-c; PART IV, 267d 27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT I, SC III [75-137] 108d-109c 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20c-d 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2 435b-436a; PROP 40 437a 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16a-c; 17b-c / Civil Government, CH VIII, SECT 107-110 49b-50d; CH XIX, SECT 212 74a-b 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 353d-356a / Political Economy, 370b-d / Social Contract, BK I, 391b-392a; 393b-c; BK II, 398a-b; 399b-c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 402c; 405d; 412c-414c; 433c-434d; 435a-436b 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [43-47] 2a 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE IV, SECT 4 16b-c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 41, 132c; NUMBER 43, 142c 43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 469d-470a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART IV, 343b-c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XIII, 572a-574d

11b. Justice and fraternity as principles of peace among men

OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 85:10—(D) Psalms, 84:11 / Isaiah, 32:15-18; 48:22; 57:21—(D) Isaias, 32:15-18; 48:22; 57:21 APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 1:18—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 1:22 NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 2:10 / James, 3:18 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 17a-b; BK IV, 137a-138c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK IV, 451d 7 PLATO: Republic, BK I, 308b-309b; BK V, 363b-365d 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK II, CH 20, 164d-166a; BK III, CH 24 203c-210a; BK IV, CH 5 228a-230b 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 11 262a-b; BK IX, SECT 1 291a-c 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK I [283-296] 110b-111a; BK VI [845-853] 233b-234a 14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 59c-60b 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK III, 224c-d; BK IV, 266b-c 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XII, CH 22 357c; BK XIV, CH 1 376b,d-377a; BK XIX, CH 12-17 517b-523a; CH 23-24, 528a-c; CH 26 528d-529a 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 29, A 3 531d-532c; QQ 37-42 570c-584d; Q 45, A 6 602b-603c 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, INFERNO, VI [58-75] 9a; PURGATORY, VI [58-151] 61b-62c; XII [46-72] 69b-c; XV [40-81] 75d-76a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 91a-94a; 96a-b 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 54a-c; 58a-59d; BK III, 131b,d-133b 30 BACON: New Atlantis, 204d-205a 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2 435b-436a; PROP 40 437a; APPENDIX X-XVII 448a-d 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 19a-d / Civil Government, CH VIII, SECT 107-108 49b-d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 355b-c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 536b-c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 347a 42 KANT: Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 375d-376b / Science of Right, 454d-458a,c esp 455c-456a, 457a-458a,c 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [99-108] 3a 43 MILL: Representative Government, 425b-426b / Utilitarianism, 473d-474b 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 428a-b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK VI, 244d-245d 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK VI, 166c-167b 54 FREUD: War and Death, 761b-c

11c. International law and international peace: treaties, alliances, and leagues as instrumentalities of international peace

OLD TESTAMENT: I Kings, 5:12—(D) III Kings, 5:12 APOCRYPHA: I Maccabees, 8; 10:51-58; 12:1-23; 13:34-40; 14:16-24—(D) OT, I Machabees, 8; 10:51-58; 12:1-23; 13:34-40; 14:16-24 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VI, 193b; 206b-d 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK V, 485d-488d 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK XII [172-211] 358b-359b 14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 55c-56a / Camillus, 108b-109a / Nicias, 427a-428c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 159c 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT V, SC IV [94-175] 30c-31b / King John, ACT II, SC I [416-560] 384a-385c / Henry V, ACT V, SC II [358-396] 566d-567a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XII, SECT 145-146 58d-59a 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 448b-453a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 2d-3b; BK IX, 58b,d-60a; BK X, 63d-64a 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 355b-c / Political Economy, 369a-b 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 103d; 119a-c; 150d-152c; 174d-175b; 378b-381a esp 378b-d; 402b-403b; 431d-432d; 433d-435a,c; 491d-492b; 535d-536c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 48d-49c; 283d-284a 42 KANT: Science of Right, 452a-456a esp 452a-d, 455a-b 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: 5a-9d esp III 5b 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 10 [296-298] 14a; ARTICLE II, SECT 2 [421-426] 15b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 3, 33d-34c; NUMBER 5, 38b-d; NUMBER 6, 41c; NUMBER 7, 44b-c; NUMBER 15, 64c-65a; NUMBER 18-20 71a-78b; NUMBER 64, 197d-198a; NUMBER 75, 223b-c 43 MILL: Representative Government, 428b-431a; 431d-432b; 435b-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 333 109b-c; PAR 338 110a-b / Philosophy of History, PART IV, 343b-c 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 292a-295a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK IX, 344b-355c passim; EPILOGUE I, 645a-646c; 649c-650b

11d. World government and world peace

12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 9, 114c-d; BK II, CH 10, 148c-d; CH 20, 164d-165a; BK III, CH 22, 199d; CH 24, 204a-b 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 11 262a-b; BK IV, SECT 4 264a; BK VI, SECT 44 278b-c 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK I [283-296] 110b-111a; BK VI [845-853] 233b-234a 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 7 515a-c; CH 17, 522d 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 471a-c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XXVI, 214b 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 355b-c / Political Economy, 369a-b; 373c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 452c-d; 456c-458a,c / Judgement, 586a-587a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 43, 142c 43 MILL: Representative Government, 426a-b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 333 109b-c 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 317c-d 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK VI, 244d-245d 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 133c-d; BK VI, 158b-159a; 166d-167a 54 FREUD: War and Death, 755a-761c esp 755b-757c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 785d-788d

CROSS-REFERENCES

For:

• The psychological meanings of war and peace as conflict and harmony in the individual life, see EMOTION 4a; JUSTICE 1b; MAN 5-5a; MEDICINE 4, 5e; OPPOSITION 4-4a; and for the theological meaning of peace as heavenly rest, see HAPPINESS 7c(1); IMMORTALITY 5f; LOVE 5a(2); WILL 7d.
• Other discussions of the state of nature and the state of war, see GOVERNMENT 5; LAW 4g; LIBERTY 1b; NATURE 2b; STATE 3c.
• The general theory of revolution or civil war, see REVOLUTION 1-1b; and for the distinction between civil and international war, see REVOLUTION 1c.
• Various considerations of the class war, see LABOR 7c-7c(3); OLIGARCHY 5c; OPPOSITION 5b; REVOLUTION 5a; STATE 5d(2); WEALTH 9h.
• The issue concerning the justice of making war, see JUSTICE 9f.
• Another discussion of the effect of war upon women and children, see FAMILY 5c.
• The weakness or strength of democracy in the sphere of war, see DEMOCRACY 7c.
• The costs of war, see WEALTH 9g.
• Other discussions of imperialism which have a bearing on wars of conquest and rebellions against the conquerors, see LIBERTY 6c; MONARCHY 5-5b; SLAVERY 6d; STATE 9f.
• Other discussions of the inevitability of war and the necessity of military preparedness, see NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 5d; OPPOSITION 5c; STATE 8e(1).
• Another treatment of the role of the military in the life of the state, see STATE 8d(1), 8e(1); and for another discussion of the military arts, see ART 9c.
• The consideration of treaties, alliances, and international law in relation to war and peace, see GOVERNMENT 5a; LAW 4g; STATE 9e(2).
• The conception of law and government as indispensable to civil peace, see GOVERNMENT 1a; LAW 1a; and for the conception of lawlessness or crime as breaching the peace of a society, see LAW 6e-6e(1).
• The consideration of justice and law as principles of civil peace, see JUSTICE 9b; LOVE 4a-4b; STATE 3e.
• Discussions bearing on the idea of world government and its relation to world peace, see CITIZEN 8; LOVE 4c; STATE 10f.

ADDITIONAL READINGS

Listed below are works not included in Great Books of the Western World, but relevant to the idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:

I. Works by authors represented in this collection. II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.

For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.

I.

• AUGUSTINE. Reply to Faustus
• DANTE. Convivio (The Banquet), FOURTH TREATISE, CH 4
• ———. On World-Government or De Monarchia
• MACHIAVELLI. The Discourses, BK II; BK III, CH 10-18, 30-33, 37-41, 45, 48
• ———. The Art of War
• F. BACON. “Of Empire,” in Essays
• ROUSSEAU. A Lasting Peace
• A. SMITH. Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms
• KANT. The Idea of a Universal History on a Cosmo-Political Plan
• ———. Perpetual Peace
• HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, VI, A (2, a)
• TOLSTOY. The Law of Love and the Law of Violence
• ———. The Kingdom of God
• ———. Christianity and Patriotism
• ———. Notes for Soldiers
• W. JAMES. Memories and Studies, CH 4
• FREUD. Why War?

II.

• CAESAR. The Gallic War
• MAIMONIDES. Mishneh Torah, BK XIV, CH 5
• DUBOIS. De Recuperatione Terre Sancte
• T. MORE. Utopia, BK II
• ERASMUS. The Complaint of Peace
• ———. Antipolemus
• LUTHER. Whether Soldiers, Too, Can Be Saved
• VITORIA. De Indis et De Jure Belli
• GENTILI. De Jure Belli (On the Laws of War)
• SUAREZ. On War
• CRUCÉ. The New Cyneas
• GROTIUS. The Rights of War and Peace
• PENN. An Essay Towards the Present and Future Peace of Europe
• SAINT-PIERRE. Scheme for Lasting Peace
• VATTEL. The Law of Nations, BK III-IV
• VOLTAIRE. “War,” in A Philosophical Dictionary
• ———. The Ignorant Philosopher, CH 48
• BURKE. Resolutions for Conciliation with America
• FRANKLIN. On War and Peace
• BENTHAM. A Plan for a Universal and Perpetual Peace
• ———. Principles of International Law
• GODWIN. An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice, BK V, CH 16-19
• SCHILLER. Wallenstein
• CHANNING. Discourses on War
• CLAUSEWITZ. On War
• GOGOL. Taras Bulba
• PUSHKIN. The Captain’s Daughter
• STENDHAL. The Charterhouse of Parma
• WHEWELL. The Elements of Morality, SUP, CH 4
• PROUDHON. La guerre et la paix
• T. H. GREEN. The Principles of Political Obligation, (L)
• MAHAN. The Influence of Sea Power upon History
• H. SIDGWICK. Practical Ethics, I
• SHAW. Arms and the Man
• CRANE. The Red Badge of Courage
• BLOCH. The Future of War in Its Technical, Economic, and Political Relations
• FOCH. The Principles of War
• SUMNER. “War,” in War and Other Essays
• SANTAYANA. Reason in Society, CH 3
• LIEBKNECHT. Militarism
• PÉGUY. Basic Verities (War and Peace)
• VANDERPOL. Le droit de guerre, CH 4
• J. A. HOBSON. Towards International Government
• LENIN. Collected Works, VOL XVI, The Imperialist War
• T. VEBLEN. An Inquiry into the Nature of Peace and the Terms of Its Perpetuation
• DELBRÜCK. Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte
• BALFOUR. Essays Speculative and Political, CH 9
• BERNHARDI. The War of the Future in the Light of the Lessons of the World War
• DOUHET. The Command of the Air
• DEWEY. Characters and Events, VOL II, BK IV (1, 6, 20-23)
• ———. The Public and Its Problems, CH 5
• STURZO. The International Community and the Right of War
• FERRERO. Peace and War
• SHOLOKHOV. The Silent Don
• ROMAINS. Verdun
• FOERTSCH. The Art of Modern Warfare
• VANN. Morality and War
• WELLS. The New World Order
• KELSEN. Law and Peace in International Relations
• WRIGHT. A Study of War
• BORGESE. Common Cause
• ADLER. How to Think About War and Peace
• DIWAKAR. Satyagraha: The Power of Truth