Chapter 97: VIRTUE AND VICE

INTRODUCTION

In their currently popular connotations, the words “virtue” and “vice” have extremely limited significance. Virtue tends to be identified with chastity or at least with conformity to the prevailing standards of sexual behavior. The popular notion of vice retains a little more of the traditional meaning, insofar as it implies injury to a person’s character or health as the result of strong habitual addictions. But, as in the case of virtue, the things which are popularly called “vices” are largely concerned with pleasures or sensual indulgences.

In the tradition of the great books, however, the scope of these terms and the range of the problems in which they are involved seem to be co-extensive with morality; or, in other words, with the broadest consideration of good and evil in human life, with what is right and wrong for man not only to do, but also to wish or desire, and even to think. For some of the great moral philosophers, other terms—such as duty for Marcus Aurelius and Kant, or pleasure and utility for Mill—seem to be more central. But for Plato, Aristotle, and Aquinas virtue is a basic moral principle. By reference to it they define the good man, the good life, and the good society. Yet even for them it is not the first principle of ethics. They define virtue itself by reference to a more ultimate good—happiness. For them the virtues are ordered to happiness as means to an end.

THE ANCIENT ENUMERATION of particular virtues may show the range of things comprehended under the notion of virtue generally. It may also further sharpen the contrast with the contemporary tendency to use the words “virtue” and “vice” as if they applied only to matters which fall within the sphere of one of the virtues. That one is the virtue which both Plato and Aristotle call “temperance,” and which they conceive as concerned chiefly with the bodily appetites and pleasures. Plato and Aristotle give somewhat different enumerations, but courage and justice are as fundamental for them as temperance; and when certain virtues come later to be classified as the cardinal or principal virtues, these three are always named together. In that classification, there is a fourth—prudence or, as it is sometimes called, “practical wisdom.”

Plato’s enumeration of the virtues in the Republic also adds wisdom to temperance, courage, and justice. This indicates at once that the ancient conception of virtue as the quality which makes a man good, extends to his mind as well as to his character—to the sphere of thinking and knowing as well as to desire, emotion, and action. Aristotle makes this explicit by dividing all the virtues into moral and intellectual, or excellences of character and of mind. He names five intellectual virtues: in addition to wisdom and prudence (which he distinguishes as speculative and practical wisdom), he lists art, science, and what he calls “intuitive reason,” which Aquinas later calls “understanding.”

The division of the virtues into moral and intellectual leads, in Aristotle’s analysis, to the further distinction between those intellectual virtues—understanding, science, wisdom—which represent the possession of speculative insight or theoretic knowledge, and those—art and prudence—which represent skill in practical thinking or in the application of knowledge to production and action respectively. Because it is concerned with action, or moral conduct, the virtue of prudence is most closely associated with the moral virtues of justice, courage, and temperance. The grouping together by Aquinas of these four as the cardinal virtues carries the implication that the remaining four (i.e., art and the three virtues of the speculative reason) play a secondary role. The implication is simply that a man may be made good as a scientist or good as an artist by the acquisition of these virtues, but he is not made good as a man by these virtues, nor do they enable him to lead a good life and achieve happiness, as do the moral virtues accompanied by prudence.

In line with the principle by which he regards certain virtues as cardinal or indispensable for human rectitude and welfare, the Christian moralist goes further than the moral philosopher in developing the theory of virtue. Considering man’s limitations and his fallen nature, he holds that more than all the natural virtues (i.e., the virtues which men can attain by their own effort) is required for salvation—for the supernatural end of eternal happiness. Faith, hope, and charity, according to St. Paul, are indispensable to lift man’s life to a plane, and direct it to a goal, which exceed his nature. These gifts of God’s grace are subsequently treated by Augustine and Aquinas as virtues—supernatural, not natural virtues. Aquinas specifically calls them “theological virtues” to distinguish them from other supernatural endowments, such as the infused moral virtues and the gifts of the Holy Ghost.

THE READER MAY OBSERVE that of all the virtues so far named, only the three theological virtues are not the subject of separate chapters in this collection of great ideas. The chapters on Courage, Justice, Temperance, Prudence, Wisdom may include discussions of these qualities which do not specifically treat them as virtues. Certainly that is true of the chapters on Art and Science, and the chapter on Principle, wherein the virtue of intuitive reason or the understanding of first principles is considered. Nevertheless, that all but one of these chapters bear the name of the traditionally recognized virtues indicates how widely and variously they make their appearance throughout the great books—by example and comment in poetry and history as well as by definition and analysis in the ethical and political treatises. In contrast, the theological virtues appear only in Christian, not pagan literature, and then mainly in religious rather than secular writing.

It is also of interest to note the relation which this chapter bears to those dealing with other fundamental concepts of moral philosophy or theology. Some of the terms mentioned in the foregoing paragraphs—duty, pleasure, happiness, good—name chapters which are co-implicated with this one in the problem of how men should live and what they should seek. The Outline of Topics will reveal still others—knowledge, desire, emotion, reason, will, wealth, honor, friendship, teaching, family, state, citizen, law, sin, and grace—each of which is (or indicates) the title of a chapter that treats of matters related to virtue as cause or consequence, as psychological factor or external condition.

One chapter not yet mentioned has maximum relevance for most of the authors who offer some analysis of virtue. The chapter on Habit treats an idea that is crucial to the definition of virtue. Aquinas, for example, allocates the discussion of virtue and vice to his Treatise on Habit in the Summa Theologica. He divides this treatise into questions concerning habits in general and questions concerning good and evil habits—or virtues and vices—in particular. But the notion that virtue combines the elements of habit and goodness is not peculiarly his. With varying degrees of emphasis and explicitness, it appears in Plato and Aristotle, in Augustine, Bacon, Hegel, and James. Kant alone expressly dissents, declaring that virtue “is not to be defined and esteemed merely as habit, and… as a long custom acquired by the practice of morally good actions.”

THE DISCUSSION OF VIRTUE originates in the dialogues of Plato and the Ethics of Aristotle with a number of related questions. Meno’s opening question—“Can you tell me, Socrates, whether virtue is acquired by teaching or by practice; or if by neither teaching nor practice, then whether it comes to man by nature, or in some other way?”—requires, in the opinion of Socrates, other questions to be faced: what virtue is, how virtue is related to knowledge, whether virtue is one or many, and if many, how the several particular virtues are related to one another.

In the course of the dialogue, each of the alternatives is considered. If virtue were identical with knowledge, it could be taught and learned just as geometry is. If virtue were simply a habit, it could be acquired by practice, that is, by the repetition of similar acts. But neither practice nor teaching seems by itself to explain how men come by virtue, and even less why virtuous fathers should so often fail to produce virtue in their sons. Yet Socrates does not completely dismiss these possibilities or the possibility considered at the end, that “virtue comes to the virtuous by the gift of God.” What truth there is in each of them, he concludes, cannot be determined until we know precisely what virtue is.

Another dialogue, the Protagoras, pursues a similar inquiry and seems to reach a similarly indeterminate conclusion. The relation of virtue to knowledge here leads to the question whether “wisdom and temperance and courage and justice and holiness” are “five names of the same thing.” To the extent that each depends on knowledge of what is good and evil, they would seem to be, if not identical, at least inseparable aspects of the same thing. Protagoras objects on the score that a man may be courageous and at the same time “utterly unrighteous, unholy, intemperate, ignorant.” But Socrates finally gets him to admit reluctantly that courage consists in knowledge, and cowardice in ignorance, of what is and is not dangerous.

It was Protagoras, however, who originally contended against Socrates that virtue can be taught. The reduction of all the virtues to some form of knowledge would therefore seem to confirm his opinion. Socrates, in winning the argument about virtue and knowledge, seems to overthrow his own view that virtue cannot be taught. “The result of our discussion,” Socrates says at the end, “appears to me to be singular. For if the argument had a human voice, that voice would be heard laughing at us and saying: ‘Protagoras and Socrates, you are strange beings; there are you, Socrates, who were saying that virtue cannot be taught, contradicting yourself now by your attempt to prove that all things are knowledge, including justice and temperance and courage—which tends to show that virtue can certainly be taught. … Protagoras, on the other hand, who started by saying that it might be taught, is now eager to prove it to be anything rather than knowledge.’”

The only way “this terrible confusion of our ideas” might be cleared up, Socrates suggests, is for the conversation to go on “until we ascertain what virtue is.” But that particular conversation does not go on; nor do the definitions of virtue which are proposed in other Platonic dialogues seem to be decisive on the point whether virtue is knowledge or whether it can be taught. In the Laws, for example, the Athenian Stranger, saying that “harmony of the soul, taken as a whole, is virtue,” proposes that education should consist in training “the first instincts of virtue in children” by producing suitable habits in them. But his training does not seem to be, like ordinary teaching, the inculcation of knowledge. It is “training in respect of pleasure and pain,” whereby we are led to hate what we ought to hate and love what we ought to love.

In the Republic, Socrates compares the harmony produced by virtue in the soul with the harmony of the parts in a healthy body. “Virtue is the health and beauty and well-being of the soul,” he declares, “and vice the disease and weakness and deformity of the same.” Though wisdom consists in the rule of the other parts of the soul by reason in the light of “knowledge of what is for the interest of each of the parts and of the whole,” it does not seem to be the whole of virtue, nor does Socrates suggest that men become virtuous simply by becoming wise. On the contrary, he intimates that “good practices lead to virtue, and evil practices to vice,” and that, like certain bodily qualities, the “virtues of the soul… can be implanted by habit and exercise.”

IT IS SOMETIMES SUPPOSED that Aristotle differs from Plato on fundamental points in the theory of virtue. The fact that Aristotle criticizes Socrates for “thinking that all the virtues are forms of practical wisdom,” seems to imply a basic disagreement on the relation of virtue to knowledge. But Aristotle also remarks that Socrates was right “in saying they implied practical wisdom.” His own view that the moral virtues of courage, temperance, and justice are inseparable from the intellectual virtue of prudence does not seem to differ substantially from the statements of Socrates that “virtue must be a sort of wisdom or prudence” and that “virtue is either wholly or partly wisdom.” Such difference as there is appears to be not so much in what is being affirmed or denied as in the manner of statement or analysis, and beyond that, perhaps, in a method of exposition which permits Aristotle to give definite answers to questions Plato’s dialogues often leave unanswered.

Aristotle’s analysis, of course, sometimes changes the questions themselves to make them answerable, but this is not always so. His summary of existing opinions concerning the acquisition of virtue—that “some think we are made good by nature, others by habituation, others by teaching”—is nearly equivalent, as an enumeration of the possibilities, to Meno’s opening question. But where Socrates in answering Meno contents himself with suggesting that there may be some truth in each possibility as against the others, Aristotle definitely affirms that the whole truth about the matter combines all three factors. “There are three things,” he writes, “which make men good and virtuous: these are nature, habit, rational principle.” Even Socrates’ final point, that virtue may be a gift of God, seems to be affirmed by Aristotle’s comment that, in effecting virtue, “nature’s part evidently does not depend on us, but as a result of some divine causes is present in those who are truly fortunate.”

But in the case of two Platonic questions—the one about the relation of virtue to knowledge and the other about the unity of virtue—Aristotle’s analysis transforms the problem. His basic distinction between moral and intellectual virtue turns the question about virtue and knowledge into one concerning the role which one very special kind of knowledge, represented by the virtue of prudence, plays in the formation and operation of good moral habits—habits in the sphere of action and passion, or of the will and the emotions. By substituting a number of distinct intellectual virtues for the single term ‘knowledge,’ Aristotle can definitely answer both Yes and No to the question. Not all the intellectual virtues, not art and science, or even speculative wisdom, are needed for courage, temperance, and justice; but if by “knowledge” is meant nothing more than prudence, then Aristotle affirms these moral virtues to involve knowledge of a sort.

The distinction between moral and intellectual virtue also enables Aristotle to reformulate the problem of the unity of virtue. Instead of asking whether there is only one virtue, having many aspects, or many distinct virtues, he considers which virtues are interdependent and which can exist separately from one another. Virtue has unity in the inseparability of the moral virtues from one another and from prudence. The sailor who appears to be courageous without being temperate, or the thief who appears to be prudent without being just, has only the appearance of these virtues. But though Aristotle uses the phrase “perfect virtue” to signify both the integration of these virtues and the perfection of each when it is integrated with the others, he does not include all the particular virtues in the unity of virtue. Some, like art and science, can exist apart from prudence or the moral virtues, and they from it.

By showing how all of the moral virtues depend upon prudence or practical wisdom, Aristotle thinks he is able to “refute the argument … that the virtues exist in separation from each other.” But he does not find any greater unity of the virtues than is involved in their inseparability as a result of their common dependence on prudence. Following Aristotle, Aquinas criticizes those who assert a more profound unity by claiming that prudence, temperance, fortitude, and justice signify “only certain general conditions… to be found in all the virtues.” This, according to Aquinas, is tantamount to denying that they are distinct habits.

Insisting that they are really distinct as habits, Aquinas nevertheless suggests that “these four virtues qualify one another by a kind of overflow. For,” he explains, “the qualities of prudence overflow into the other virtues in so far as they are directed by prudence. And each of the others overflows into the rest, for the reason that whoever can do what is more difficult, can do what is less difficult.” The man who “can curb his desires for the pleasures of touch, which is a very hard thing to do… is more able to check his daring in dangers of death … which is much easier”; the man who can withstand the “dangers of death, which is a matter of great difficulty, is more able to remain firm against the onslaught of pleasures.”

As for justice, Aquinas holds that legal justice, “by commanding the other virtues … draws them all into the service of the commonweal.” Aristotle also sees a certain unification of the virtues, at least all the moral virtues, in terms of justice—the kind of justice he calls “general” to distinguish it from the special virtue of justice. He conceives general justice as comprising all the moral virtues, including special justice, insofar as all these virtues are directed toward the welfare of society and the good of other men. “Justice in this sense,” he writes, “is not a part of virtue, but virtue entire.” Holding that it “is complete virtue, not absolutely, but in relation to our neighbor,” he also adds that “it is complete because he who possesses it can exercise his virtue not only in himself, but towards his neighbor as well.”

Some writers tend in the opposite direction toward a greater separation of the virtues. Justice, according to Marcus Aurelius, is prior to the other virtues, for “in justice the other virtues have their foundation.” In suggesting that a man can secure “a favorable and commodious interpretation of his vices” by coloring them in the light of his virtues, Bacon seems to accept the conjunction of virtue with vice which is expressed in the familiar phrase “the defects of one’s virtues.” That a gentleman may with honor be permitted certain failings is similarly implied by Dr. Johnson’s reference to “the genteel vices.”

This comfortable doctrine that a man can be truly virtuous in some aspects of character while vicious in others seems, however, to be rejected by Montaigne and Kant, as well as by Plato and Aristotle. The standard of Christian virtue is even more stringent. What may appear to be virtues are, according to Augustine, “rather vices than virtues so long as there is no reference to God in the matter. For although some suppose that virtues which have a reference only to themselves, and are desired only on their own account, are yet true and genuine virtues, the fact is that even they are inflated with pride, and are therefore to be reckoned vices.”

The theological virtue of charity—the love of God—is held by the theologians to be indispensable to the perfection of all the other virtues in a Christian life. Not only, according to Aquinas, do faith and hope lack “the perfect character of virtue without charity,” but all the other virtues are imperfect in its absence. “It is possible by means of human works,” he writes, “to acquire the moral virtues in so far as they produce good works that are directed to an end not surpassing the natural ability of man. And when they are acquired thus, they can be without charity, even as they were in many of the pagans. But in so far as they produce good works in relation to a supernatural last end, thus they have the character of virtue truly and perfectly, and cannot be acquired by human acts, but are infused by God. Such moral virtues cannot be without charity. … Only the infused virtues are perfect, and deserve to be called virtues absolutely. … The other virtues, those, namely, that are acquired, are virtues in a restricted sense.”

THAT VIRTUE IS GOOD and vice evil seems to go undisputed in the tradition of the great books, even by Machiavelli who bemoans the “necessity” of vice in a successful prince. But unanimity on this point does not preclude a variety of answers to the question, What is the good of virtue?

Is it an end in itself, or a means, and if a means, what end does it serve? Moreover, what is the principle of goodness in the virtues? Does it lie in the rule of reason, in conformity to nature, in obedience to the moral law and the imperative of duty, in submission to God’s will? Or are the virtues good only to the extent that they are useful and profitable? To the individual alone or to society as well? As these questions are differently answered, different conceptions of virtue appear.

Marcus Aurelius gives the simplest and most familiar answer. Virtue is its own reward. “What more dost thou want,” the Stoic asks, “when thou hast done a man a service? Art thou not content that thou hast done something conformable to thy nature, and dost thou seek to be paid for it?” The virtues are not only self-rewarding but they are the only things in which a good man can take delight. “When thou wishest to delight thyself,” Aurelius says, “think of the virtues of those who live with thee … For nothing delights so much as the examples of the virtues.”

Locke seems to make profit or utility the source of goodness in the virtues. “God, having, by an inseparable connexion, joined virtue and public happiness together,” Locke writes, “and made the practice thereof necessary to the preservation of society, and visibly beneficial to all with whom the virtuous man has to do, it is no wonder that everyone should not only allow, but recommend and magnify those rules to others, from whose observance of them he is sure to reap advantage to himself.”

The virtues seem to become conventional in Locke’s view. They are whatever the members of a particular society deem advantageous. “Virtue and vice are names pretended, and supposed, everywhere to stand for actions in their nature, right and wrong; and as far as they are really so applied, they are so far coincident with the divine law… But yet, whatever is pretended,” Locke adds, “this is visible, that these names, virtue and vice, in the particular instances of their application, through the several nations and societies of men in the world, are constantly attributed only to such actions as, in each country and society, are in reputation or discredit. … Thus, the measure of what is everywhere called and esteemed virtue and vice, is the approbation or dislike, praise or blame,” which establishes itself in a society “according to the judgment, maxims, or fashion of that place. … That this is the common measure of virtue and vice, will appear,” Locke thinks, “to anyone who considers, that though that passes for vice in one country, which is counted a virtue, or at least not a vice, in another; yet everywhere, virtue and praise, vice and blame, go together.”

Hobbes also regards the names of the virtues as “inconstant names” varying according to “the nature, disposition and interest of the speaker … for one man calleth wisdom, what another calleth fear; and one cruelty, what another justice; one prodigality, what another magnanimity.” Yet this does not prevent Hobbes from proposing a list of virtues which derive their goodness from the natural law. “All men agree on this,” he writes, “that peace is good; and therefore also the ways or means of peace, which … are justice, gratitude, modesty, equity, mercy, and the rest of the Laws of Nature, are good; that is to say, Moral Virtues; and their contrary Vices, evil.”

Moral philosophy, according to Hobbes, is “the science of Virtue and Vice” and “therefore the true doctrine of the Laws of Nature is the true moral philosophy.” Though other writers of moral philosophy “acknowledge the same virtues and vices,” Hobbes thinks they do not see “wherein consisted their goodness; nor that they come to be praised as the means of peaceable, sociable, and comfortable living.”

Like Kant, he criticizes Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean; or, as Hobbes refers to it, the notion that virtue consists in “a mediocrity of the passions; as if not the cause, but the degree of daring, made fortitude; or not the cause, but the quantity of a gift, made liberality.” The cause of virtue, according to Hobbes, is the natural law, commanding men to do whatever is required for peace and self-preservation. In terms of a quite different conception of law and duty, Kant also says that “the difference between virtue and vice cannot be sought in the degree in which certain maxims are followed, but only in the specific quality of the maxims. In other words, the vaunted principle of Aristotle, that virtue is the mean between two vices, is false.”

It is not Kant but Spinoza who seems to bear an affinity to Hobbes in the theory of virtue. Both make self-preservation the end which determines the direction of virtuous conduct. Both consider civil peace or the good of others in relation to self. Both draw up lists of moral virtues from their enumeration of the passions, Hobbes by reference to natural law, Spinoza in terms of adequate ideas of God’s nature. Spinoza identifies virtue with power and holds that “the more each person strives and is able to seek his own profit, that is to say, to preserve his own being, the more virtue does he possess.” But though he makes “the endeavor after self-preservation … the primary and only foundation of virtue,” he conceives self-preservation itself to have its foundation in knowledge of God.

“To act in conformity with virtue,” Spinoza maintains, “is to act according to the guidance of reason, and every effort which we make through reason is an effort to understand, and therefore the highest good of those who follow after virtue is to know God, that is to say, it is a good which is common to all men, and can be equally possessed by all in so far as they are of the same nature.” In direct consequence, he declares that “the good which everyone who follows after virtue seeks for himself, he will desire for other men; and his desire on their behalf will be greater in proportion as he has greater knowledge of God.”

ALL THOSE WHO RELATE virtue to happiness do not do so in the same way. “The multiplication of happiness,” writes Mill, “is, according to the utilitarian ethics, the object of virtue.” He attributes to “a very imperfect state of the world’s arrangements” the fact that “anyone can best serve the happiness of others by the absolute sacrifice of his own; yet so long as the world is in that imperfect state,” he goes on to say, “the readiness to make such a sacrifice is the highest virtue which can be found in man.”

But Mill repeatedly insists that only an increase of happiness justifies sacrifice, and only its contribution to happiness makes virtue good. He criticizes the Stoics for striving “to raise themselves above all concern about anything but virtue” and for supposing that “he who has that has everything. … No claim of this description is made for the virtuous man by the utilitarian doctrine.”

While admitting that virtue may come to be desired disinterestedly, as an ingredient of happiness rather than as a means to it, Mill does not regard virtue as a natural and necessary condition of happiness. “Virtue, according to the utilitarian doctrine, is not naturally and originally part of the end, but it is capable of becoming so.” If there are some who do not desire virtue, either because it gives them no pleasure or because the lack of it causes them no pain, they can be happy without it.

The view taken by Plato and Aristotle seems to be directly contrary. All things which have ends appointed by their nature, Socrates argues at the beginning of the Republic, must also be capable of virtues or excellences whereby to achieve their ends. If happiness is the end of the soul or of human life, then we must look to such excellences as the virtue of justice and temperance to provide the means. When Glaucon and Adeimantus ask Socrates to prove that only the virtuous man can be happy, he undertakes the long analysis of the parts of the soul and the parts of the state to discover the virtues appropriate to each and to the whole. When the virtues are defined, Glaucon admits that the question he originally asked “has now become ridiculous.”

The answer to the question is evident as soon as virtue and happiness are seen to be reciprocal notions, like cause and effect. Yet Aristotle’s definition of moral virtue as a habit of choice, consisting in a mean—a mean relative to ourselves, determined by reason or as the prudent man would determine it—does not immediately explain why happiness is defined as “the realization and perfect exercise of virtue.” The connection between virtue as means and happiness as end becomes apparent only in terms of the conception that happiness is the ultimate end because it includes all good things and leaves nothing to be desired.

As an object of desire, as something worth having in itself, virtue is only one type of good. It does not constitute happiness. Happiness, according to Aristotle, includes as well such bodily and external goods as health and pleasure, friendship and wealth. But unlike these other goods, the virtues alone are capable of producing happiness because, in Aristotle’s view, they are the causes of our thinking and acting well with respect to all other goods.

“We do not acquire or preserve virtue by the help of external goods,” Aristotle says, “but external goods by the help of virtue.” This applies to health and pleasures, no less than to wealth and friends. Because the moral virtues, together with prudence, direct our desires, determine our choices, and govern our actions in accordance with reason’s discrimination between real and apparent goods, the exercise of these habits results in happiness or living well. But since external goods are goods of fortune and not entirely within our control, Aristotle finds it necessary to qualify the definition of happiness. To the statement that the happy man is one “who is active in accordance with complete virtue,” he adds that he is one “who is sufficiently equipped with external goods, not for some chance period, but throughout a complete life.”

According to Kant, “the connexion of virtue and happiness may be understood in two ways: either the endeavor to be virtuous and the rational pursuit of happiness are not two distinct actions, but absolutely identical . . . or the connexion consists in this, that virtue produces happiness as something distinct from the consciousness of virtue, as a cause produces an effect.” Kant thinks that both the Stoic and Epicurean doctrines choose the first of these alternatives. They differ from each other, in his opinion, only in the way they conceive the identity of virtue and happiness. “The Epicurean notion of virtue,” he writes, “was already involved in the maxim: to promote one’s own happiness. According to the Stoics, on the other hand, the feeling of happiness was already contained in the consciousness of virtue.”

Kant’s own resolution of what he calls “the antinomy of practical reason” seems to depend on his conception of the summum bonum. For him it is not happiness; it consists rather in being worthy of happiness through doing one’s duty. “Morality,” he says, “is not properly the doctrine how we should make ourselves happy, but how we should become worthy of happiness.” Under the moral law, to be happy is not a duty, but to be worthy of happiness is. In Kant’s view, therefore, virtue is related to happiness through the medium of duty. Virtue, he declares, is “a coincidence of the rational will with every duty firmly settled in the character.” It is “the moral strength of a man’s will in his obedience to duty.”

But in addition to being the will’s strength in overcoming obstacles—“the natural inclinations which may come into conflict with the moral purpose”—virtue, or rather “the imperative, which commands the duty of virtue,” includes “besides the notion of constraint, that of an end.” Not an end that we have, Kant explains, but one that “we ought to have,” an end “which, therefore, pure practical reason has in itself, whose highest, unconditional end (which, however, continues to be a duty) consists in this: that virtue is its own end, and by deserving well of men is also its own reward.”

THE ISSUE BETWEEN KANT and Aristotle concerning the good of virtue, as a means or an end, involves the whole of their moral philosophy. It goes to the central conflict between their fundamental principles, which is discussed in the chapters on Duty and Happiness. Fundamental differences in political philosophy also arise from different views of virtue in relation to the forms of government and the ends of the state.

The ancients, for example, define aristocracy in terms of virtue. The point is not only that aristocracy is a form of government in which the few who are most virtuous rule; it is also that form of government the principle of which is virtue, as liberty is the principle of democracy, and wealth of oligarchy. Montesquieu makes virtue the principle in republican government, in contrast to honor as the principle in monarchies and fear in despotism. “What I distinguish by the name of virtue, in a republic,” he explains, “is the love of one’s country—that is, the love of equality. It is not a moral, nor a Christian, but a political virtue; and it is the spring which sets republican government in motion, as honor is the spring which gives motion to monarchy.” Since for Montesquieu both democracy and aristocracy are forms of republican government, the former rests on virtue as much as the latter.

Agreeing that the conditions Montesquieu sets for republican government “could not exist without virtue,” Rousseau criticizes him for failing to see that, “the sovereign authority being everywhere the same, the same principle should be found in every well-constituted state, in a greater or less degree, it is true, according to the form of government.” So for Mill, virtue defines the aim of good government itself, without respect to particular forms. “The most important point of excellence which any form of government can possess,” he writes, “is to promote the virtue and intelligence of the people themselves.”

The virtues which a government promotes, however, may be those of the good citizen rather than the good man. This distinction between civic and moral virtue occupies the ancients, related as it is to the problem of the virtuous man living in a bad society—a problem which Socrates actually faces, as well as discusses, in the Apology and the Crito.

“The virtue of the citizen,” Aristotle writes, “must be relative to the constitution of the state of which he is a member. … Hence it is evident that the good citizen need not of necessity possess the virtue which makes a good man.” Yet “in some states, the good man and the good citizen are the same.”

In this vein Aquinas, considering whether the laws should try to make men good, says of a tyrannical or unjust law that “in so far as it has something of the nature of law, its aim is that the citizens be good.” At least “it aims at being obeyed by them; and this,” he adds, “is to make them good, not absolutely, but with respect to that particular government.” But Aquinas also contemplates the need for disobeying a civil ordinance if it demands too great a sacrifice of virtue by requiring the citizen to violate the natural or the divine law. As Rousseau later says, “a man’s duty” takes precedence over “that of a citizen.”

OUTLINE OF TOPICS

1. Diverse conceptions of virtue
   • 1a. The relation between knowledge and virtue - 986
   • 1b. The unity of virtue and the plurality of virtues - 986
   • 1c. The doctrine of virtue as a mean between the extremes of vice - 987
   • 1d. Virtue as an intrinsic good: its relation to happiness - 987
   • 1e. The distinction between virtue and continence: the consequences of the theory of virtue as habit - 988
2. The classification of the virtues: the correlative vices - 988
   • 2a. The division of virtues according to the parts or powers of the soul: the distinction between moral and intellectual virtue; the theory of the cardinal virtues - 988
     • (1) Enumeration and description of the moral virtues
     • (2) Enumeration and description of the intellectual virtues
   • 2b. The distinction between natural and supernatural virtues - 989
   • 2c. The appearances of virtue: imperfect or conditional virtues; the counterfeits of virtue; natural or temperamental dispositions which simulate virtue - 989
3. The order and connection of the virtues - 989
   • 3a. The equality and inequality of the virtues: the hierarchy of virtue and the degrees of vice - 989
   • 3b. The independence or interdependence of the virtues - 989
4. The natural causes or conditions of virtue - 990
   • 4a. Natural endowments: temperamental dispositions toward virtue or vice; the seeds or nurseries of virtue - 990
   • 4b. The role of teaching in the spheres of moral and intellectual virtue - 990
   • 4c. Training or practice as cause of virtue or vice: the process of habit formation - 991
   • 4d. The role of the family and the state in the development of moral virtue - 991
     • (1) The influence of parental authority on the formation of character - 991
     • (2) The moral use of rewards and punishments: the role of precept and counsel, praise and blame - 992
     • (3) The guidance of laws and customs: the limits of positive law with respect to commanding virtue and prohibiting vice - 992
     • (4) The influence on moral character of poetry, music, and other arts: the guidance of history and example - 993
   • 4e. The moral quality of human acts - 993
     • (1) The distinction between human or moral acts and the nonvoluntary or reflex acts of a man - 993
     • (2) The criteria of goodness and evil in human acts - 994
     • (3) Circumstances as affecting the morality of human acts - 994
5. Psychological factors in the formation of moral virtue - 995
   • 5a. The emotions and pleasure and pain as the matter of virtue: the role of desire or appetite - 995
   • 5b. Deliberation and judgment in the formation of virtue: the role of reason - 995
   • 5c. Intention and choice as conditions of virtue: the role of will - 996
6. Virtue in relation to other moral goods or principles - 996
   • 6a. Duty and virtue - 996
   • 6b. The relation of virtue to pleasure - 996
   • 6c. The relation of virtue to wealth - 997
   • 6d. Virtue and honor - 998
   • 6e. Virtue in relation to friendship and love - 998
7. The role of virtue in political theory - 999
   • 7a. The cultivation of virtue as an end of government and the state - 999
   • 7b. Civic virtue: the virtue of the good citizen compared with the virtue of the good man - 999
   • 7c. The aristocratic principle: virtue as a condition of citizenship or public office - 1000
   • 7d. The virtues which constitute the good or successful ruler: the vices associated with the possession of power - 1000
8. The religious aspects of virtue and vice - 1002
   • 8a. The moral consequences of original sin - 1002
   • 8b. The influence of religion on moral character: the indispensability of divine grace for the acquisition of natural virtue by fallen man - 1002
   • 8c. The divine reward of virtue and punishment of vice: here and hereafter - 1003
   • 8d. The theory of the theological virtues - 1004
     • (1) Faith and disbelief - 1004
     • (2) Hope and despair - 1005
     • (3) Charity and the disorder of love - 1005
   • 8e. The infused virtues and the moral and intellectual gifts - 1006
   • 8f. The qualities which flow from charity: humility, mercy, chastity, obedience - 1006
   • 8g. The vows and practices of the monastic life in relation to virtue - 1007
9. The advance or decline of human morality - 1007

REFERENCES

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1. Diverse conceptions of virtue

5 Euripides: Electra [367-395] 330c-d / Hecuba [582-603] 357d-358a / Phoenician Maidens [452-585] 382a-383a / Iphigenia at Aulis [543-572] 429d-430a 7 Plato: Cratylus, 101a-c / Meno 174a-190a,c / Gorgias, 275b-276b; 282b-284b / Republic, BK VII, 390a / Theaetetus, 530b-d / Sophist, 557b-d / Laws, BK I, 650a-b; BK II, 653a-c; BK V, 686d-690c 8 Aristotle: Categories, CH 8 [8b26-34] 13d / Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [246a10-248a8] 329c-330d 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 13-BK II, CH 1, 347b-349b; BK II, CH 3 [1104b24-27] 350b; CH 5-6 351b-352d; BK III, CH 5 [1114b26-30] 360d-361a; BK VI 387a-394d; BK IX, CH 8 [1169a6-11] 422c-d / Politics, BK I, CH 13 [1260a20-28] 454d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 9 [1366a33-b34] 608d-609b 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK I, CH 4 108d-110a; BK II, CH 6 144a-145b 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK II, SECT 16 259a; BK IV, SECT 29 266a; BK V, SECT 8 269d-270b; BK VI, SECT 16 275b-d; SECT 40-46 277d-278d; BK VIII, SECT 1 285a-b; SECT 39 288c; BK IX, SECT 1 291a-c; SECT 16 293a; BK XI, SECT 10 303b-c 14 Plutarch: Coriolanus, 174b,d-175a / Aristides, 265c-d / Demetrius, 726a-b 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR II, CH 6, 6b-10a; TR VI, CH 6 24a-c; TR VII, CH 8, 30c; CH 10 32a-33a / Second Ennead, TR IX, CH 15 74d-75b / Third Ennead, TR VI, CH 2 107a-108a / Sixth Ennead, TR VIII, CH 5-6 344d-345d 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK III, PAR 13-17 16c-18a / City of God, BK XIV, CH 6-9 380b-385b esp CH 9, 383d; BK XV, CH 22 416a-c; BK XIX, CH 4, 511d; CH 10 516c-d; CH 12 517b-519a; CH 25 528c-d / Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 27, 631d 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 95, A 3, ANS 508a-509b 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 54, A 3 24c-25b; Q 55 26a-29d; Q 56, A 6, 34b-35a; Q 63, A 2 64b-65a; Q 71, AA 1-3 105d-108b; PART II-II, Q 31, A 3, ANS 538b-539c 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 62c-63d; 66c-68b passim; 92c-d; 96a-b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 28a-d; 71a-72b; 183a-c; 200d-205b; 389c-390b; 391b-c 26 Shakespeare: Romeo and Juliet, ACT II, SC III [1-30] 296b-c 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 78d-79a; 80b-81a 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART III, 395a-d; PART IV, 422b,d-450d esp PROP 8 424b-c, PROP 18, SCHOL 429a-d, PROP 22-25 430b-431a, PROP 36-37, 434a-436a; PART V, PROP 42 463b-d 32 Milton: Comus 33a-56b esp [589-609] 46b-47a / Areopagitica, 390a-b 33 Pascal: Pensées, 352-360 234b-235a; 502, 260b-261a 35 Locke: Human Understanding, 90a-d; BK I, CH II, SECT 5-6 105a-c; SECT 18 109c-d; BK II, CH XXVIII, SECT 10-12 230b-231c 36 Swift: Gulliver’s Travels, PART IV, 165a-166a 37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 38c-39c; 316a-c 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 173b-174a / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 256a-b; 257c-d; 270d-271a esp 271b [fn 1]; 273d-277b esp 275b / Practical Reason, 303b-304d esp 304a; 326b-327c; 339b-d; 358c / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 366d-369a esp 368d; 371c-372a; 373b-d; 376c-379b esp 377b-c 43 Mill: Liberty, 303b-305b / Utilitarianism, 462a-463b 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART II, PAR 150, 56c-57a 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK V, 198b-203a esp 200c, 202d 53 James: Psychology, 81b-83b

1a. The relation between knowledge and virtue

Old Testament: Genesis, 3 / Proverbs, 1:20-2:22; 8:1-15,20; 9:9; 10:31; 11:12; 14:16-18,22,29; 15:21; 28:7; 29:8 / Ecclesiastes, 2:26 Apocrypha: Wisdom of Solomon, 1:1-7 esp 1:4; 6; 8; 9:9-10:14; 14:22-27—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 1:1-7 esp 1:4; 6; 8; 9:9-10:14; 14:22-27 / Ecclesiasticus, 19:22-24; 39:1-11; 43:33; 50:28-29—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 19:19-21; 39:1-15; 43:37; 50:30-31 New Testament: Luke, 23:34 / John, 3:17-21 / Romans, 2:17-23; 7:15-25; 16:19 / Philippians, 1:9-11 / Colossians, 1:9-11 / Titus, 1:16 / James, 4:17 / II Peter, 1:1-11 5 Euripides: Hippolytus [373-387] 228b-c 6 Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 397b-c; 403b 7 Plato: Charmides, 7b-c; 12a-13c / Laches, 31a-b; 33a-37d / Protagoras 38a-64d esp 56b, 57d-64d / Euthydemus, 66d-67a; 69a-71a; 74b-76b / Cratylus, 86c-d / Meno 174a-190a,c esp 183b-190a,c / Phaedo, 225d-226c; 230d-234c / Republic, BK I, 306c-308a; BK III, 337b-d; BK IV, 354d-355a; BK VII 388a-401d esp 389d-390b; BK VIII, 409d; BK X, 439b-441a,c / Timaeus, 454a / Theaetetus, 530b-531a / Laws, BK I, 643c-d; BK III, 669a-670c; BK V, 689d-690c; BK IX, 754a-b; BK XII, 789a / Seventh Letter, 806a-c; 810c-d 8 Aristotle: Prior Analytics, BK II, CH 25 [69a20-28] 91a / Topics, BK II, CH 9 [114b6-13] 160b; BK III, CH 6 [120a26-31] 168a 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK II, CH 4 [1105a30-b4] 350d-351a; BK III, CH 1-5 355b,d-361a passim; BK VI, CH 12-13 393b-394d; BK VII, CH 1 [1145b8]-CH 3 [1147b19] 395b-398a; BK X, CH 8 [1178a16-18] 432d; CH 9 [1179b4-1180a13] 434b-d 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK I, CH 4-5 108d-110c; CH 17, 123b; CH 26, 131c-d; CH 28, 133c-d 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK VII, SECT 62-63, 283d-284a; BK XII, SECT 12 308b-c 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK VII, PAR 27 51d-52c; BK VIII, PAR 10-11 55c-56b / City of God, BK VIII, CH 3 266a-d; CH 10 271a-d; BK XIX, CH 20, 524a 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 1, A 6, REP 3 6b-7a 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 56, A 2, REP 2-3 30c-31a; Q 57, A 5, ANS 39a-40a; Q 58, A 2 42a-43a; AA 4-5 44a-45d; PART II-II, Q 180, A 2 608c-609c 25 Montaigne: Essays, 70d-72a; 208a; 480a-c 26 Shakespeare: Merchant of Venice, ACT I, SC II [11-22] 408b-c 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 17d-18a; 26c-27a 31 Descartes: Discourse on Method, PART I, 43c; PART III, 49d-50b 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 14-17 428a-d; PROP 18, SCHOL 429a-d; PROP 23-24 430c-d; PROP 26 431a-b; PART V, PROP 10 454d-456a 32 Milton: Comus [373-385] 41b-42a / Paradise Lost, BK IV [505-535] 163b-164a; BK IX [679-779] 262a-264a / Areopagitica, 390b-391a 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 16, 117a; BK II, CH XXI, SECT 35 186b-d 35 Berkeley: Human Knowledge, SECT 100, 432b-c 35 Hume: Human Understanding, SECT I, DIV 1, 451a-b; DIV 3 451d; DIV 4, 452a-c 36 Swift: Gulliver’s Travels, PART I, 28b-29a; PART IV, 160a; 165a-166a 37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 182a-c 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 345a-c 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 149d / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 260d-261d; 282b-283d / Practical Reason, 358c / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 368c-369a 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART II, PAR 139-140 48d-54a passim / Philosophy of History, PART II, 280b-281b 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK V, 195c-201c esp 200a-201c; BK VI, 244d-245c; 248b-250a 53 James: Psychology, 82a-b; 806a-808a 54 Freud: General Introduction, 560c-d

1b. The unity of virtue and the plurality of virtues

7 Plato: Laches, 32a-37b / Protagoras, 48a-50d; 58a-64d / Meno 174a-190a,c esp 175a-d / Republic, BK IV, 346a-355a / Statesman, 605d-607a / Laws, BK I, 643b-d; BK XII, 795c-797b 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 13 347b-348d; BK V, CH 1 [1129b12]-CH 2 [1130a29] 377a-378b; BK VI, CH 13 394b-d esp [1144b30-1145a6] 394c-d / Politics, BK III, CH 9 [1271b1-9] 467d; BK III, CH 4 [1276b29-34] 473d; CH 7 [1279a40-b2] 476d 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK XI, SECT 10 303b-c 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR II, CH 7 9c-10a; TR III, CH 6 11d-12b / Second Ennead, TR IX, CH 15 74d-75b 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK IV, PAR 24 25b-c 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 60, A 1 49d-50c; Q 61, AA 3-4 56b-58b; Q 65, A 1, ANS 70b-72a; Q 68, A 5 92c-93c; Q 73, A 1 119c-120c; PART II-II, Q 23, A 8 488d-489c 25 Montaigne: Essays, 204c-d 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 80b-81a 33 Pascal: Pensées, 20 175a 42 Kant: Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 368c-d; 373b-d; 377d 43 Mill: Utilitarianism, 469a-b 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART I, PAR 96, 36c-37a

1c. The doctrine of virtue as a mean between the extremes of vice

5 Aeschylus: Eumenides [490-565] 86b-87a 7 Plato: Charmides, 71a-c / Laches, 35c-d / Republic, BK III, 338a-339a; BK X, 439b-d 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK II, CH 2 [1104a10-26] 349c-d; CH 6-9 351c-355a,c; BK III, CH 5 [1113a3-6] 359c; BK III, CH 6-BK V, CH 11 361a-387a,c; BK VI, CH 1 [1138b16-34] 387a-b / Politics, BK IV, CH 11 [1295a35-38] 495c / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 9 [1367b36-c7] 610a-b 11 Nicomachus: Arithmetic, BK I, 820a; 826d-827a 14 Plutarch: Coriolanus, 174b,d-175a 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR II, CH 2 7b-c 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 64, 66c-70a 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, VII [1-66] 9c-10b; PURGATORY, XX [19-54] 86c-87a 22 Chaucer: Troilus and Cressida, BK I, STANZA 99 14a / Tale of Melibeus, PAR 52, 424a-b 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 96b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 89b-d 29 Cervantes: Don Quixote, PART II, 256d; 291d; 362b 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 79b-81a 31 Descartes: Discourse on Method, PART III, 48b-49d 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 42-44 437b-438a 33 Pascal: Pensées, 350-360 234a-235a; 378, 238a 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK XXIX, 262a 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 340b-c 42 Kant: Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 376d-377b 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 150, 56d-57a

1d. Virtue as an intrinsic good: its relation to happiness

7 Plato: Gorgias, 275b-284d / Republic, BK I, 309b-310b; BK IX, 418d-421a; BK X, 436c-437c; 439b-d / Theaetetus, 530b-d / Laws, BK V, 689d-690c / Seventh Letter, 806b-c 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 7-9 342c-345c; CH 13 347b-348d; BK IX, CH 9 423a-424b; BK X, CH 6-8 430d-434a / Politics, BK III, CH 9 [1271b1-9] 467d; BK IV, CH 11 [1295a35-38] 495c; BK VII, CH 1-3 527a-530a; CH 8 [1328a37-b2] 532d; CH 9 [1328b35-36] 533b; CH 13 [1331b24-1332a28] 536b-537a / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 5 [1360b4-30] 600d-601b; CH 6 [1362b1-5] [1362b10-14] 603b; CH 9 [1366a33-b34] 608d-609b 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK I, CH 4 108d-110a; BK II, CH 10, 149c-150a; BK III, CH 24, 206c-210a; BK IV, CH 7, 233a-d 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK III, SECT 12, 262b-c; BK V, SECT 34 273c; BK IX, SECT 4, 292a; SECT 42 295c-296a,c 14 Plutarch: Aristides, 265c-d 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR II, CH 3-4 7c-8c; TR IV, CH 9 16c-17a / Second Ennead, TR IX, CH 15 74d-75b 18 Augustine: City of God, BK VIII, CH 8-9 270a-271a; BK XIX, CH 1-4 507a-513c 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 2, A 2 616d-617b; A 4 618a-d 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 55 26a-29d; PART II-II, Q 180, A 2 608c-609c 25 Montaigne: Essays, 28a-d; 71a-72b; 301d-302d; 389c-390b 27 Shakespeare: All’s Well That Ends Well, ACT II, SC III [124-153] 152d-153a 29 Cervantes: Don Quixote, PART II, 222b-d 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 19-28 429d-431c; PART V, PROP 42 463b-d 32 Milton: Comus 33a-56b 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK I, CH II, SECT 5-6 105a-c 36 Sterne: Tristram Shandy, 538b 37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 316a-c 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 234c-240b esp 235a-b, 238c-239a / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals 253a-287d esp 256c-257d, 258d, 261c-264a, 267b-d, 282b-283d, 286a-c / Practical Reason 291a-361d esp 297a-314d, 325a-327d, 329a-331a, 339a-d, 340a-342d, 344c-347d / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics 365a-379d esp 365b-366d, 369c-373b, 374a-c / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 387b-388c / Judgement, 478a-479d; 584d-587a; 588b [fn 2]; 591b-592a; 594c-596c 43 Mill: Utilitarianism, 445a-464d esp 452c-453a, 461c-464d 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 316a-317a; 592d-593a 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK V, 214c-215b 52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 26a-27d; BK VI 146b,d-170d 54 Freud: Civilization and Its Discontents, 793a-794a

1e. The distinction between virtue and continence: the consequences of the theory of virtue as habit

8 Aristotle: Topics, BK IV, CH 5 [125b20-28] 174d-175a 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK II, CH 1 348b,d-349b; BK IV, CH 9 [1128b34-35] 376c; BK VII, CH 1-10 395a-403c 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 95, A 3, REP 4 508a-509b 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 55 26a-29d; Q 58, A 3, REP 2 43b-44a; Q 109, A 10, ANS 347a-d; PART III, Q 7, A 2, REP 3 746c-747b 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, XI [79-90] 15d-16a 25 Montaigne: Essays, 200d-204d esp 203a-b; 494d-495a 27 Shakespeare: Hamlet, ACT III, SC IV [160-170] 56b 37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 122d-123a 42 Kant: Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 368d; 378a-b 43 Mill: Utilitarianism, 464b-c 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 375b-c 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 311c 53 James: Psychology, 81b-83b

2. The classification of the virtues: the correlative vices

7 Plato: Republic, BK IV, 346a-355c / Laws, BK I, 643c 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 13-BK II, CH 9, 347b-355a,c; BK III, CH 5 [1115a3]-BK VI, CH 13 [1145a14] 361a-394d 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR II, CH 2-3 7b-8a 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, QQ 57-62 35a-63a 21 Dante: Divine Comedy esp HELL, XI 15a-16b, PURGATORY, XVII [82-139] 79b-d, PARADISE, IV [28-63] 111a-b 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 62c-63d 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 41-73 437a-447a

2a. The division of virtues according to the parts or powers of the soul: the distinction between moral and intellectual virtue; the theory of the cardinal virtues

7 Plato: Republic, BK IV, 346a-355a; BK VII, 390a / Laws, BK I, 643c 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [246b10-248a8] 329c-330d 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 13 347b-348d; BK II, CH 1 [1103a14-18] 348b; BK VI, CH 1-2 387a-388b; CH 12 [1144a1-11] 393c-d; CH 13 394b-d; BK X, CH 8 [1178a8-b8] 432d-433b / Politics, BK VII, CH 14 [1333a16-30] 538a; CH 15 [1334b8-28] 539b-d; BK VIII, CH 2 [1337b33-c1] 542b-c 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR II, CH 2-3 7b-8a; TR III, CH 6 11d-12b 18 Augustine: City of God, BK V, CH 20 225b-226a; BK XIX, CH 4 511a-513c 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 113, A 1, REP 2 576a-d 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 51, A 3 14b-15a; Q 53, A 1, ANS and REP 3 19d-21a; Q 56 29d-35a; Q 58 41a-45c; Q 61 54d-59d; Q 65, A 1 70b-72a; Q 68, A 8 95c-96c; PART II-II, PROLOGUE 379a-b

2a(1) Enumeration and description of the moral virtues

8 Aristotle: Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [246b20-247a19] 330a-b 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 13 [1103a3-10] 348c-d; BK II, CH 7-8 352d-354d; BK III, CH 5 [1115a3]-BK V, CH 11 [1138b15] 361a-387a,c / Politics, BK I, CH 13 [1260a20-28] 454d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 9 [1366b1-22] 608d-609a 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK III, SECT 6 261a-c; SECT 11 262a-b; BK V, SECT 5 269b; SECT 12 271a; BK VIII, SECT 39 288c 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR II, CH 6-7, 9b-10a 18 Augustine: City of God, BK XIX, CH 4, 511a-513c; CH 20 523d-524a 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 113, A 1, REP 2 576a-d 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 60, 49d-54d; Q 64, AA 1-2 66d-68b 27 Shakespeare: Macbeth, ACT IV, SC III [91-100] 304b-c 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 41-72 437a-446c 36 Swift: Gulliver’s Travels, PART IV, 165b-166a 42 Kant: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 256a-b / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 368b-369a 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK V, 200c-d

2a(2) Enumeration and description of the intellectual virtues

8 Aristotle: Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [247b1-248a3] 330b-d 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 13 [1103a3-10] 348c-d; BK VI 387a-394d 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 14, A 1, REP 2 75d-76c 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 50, A 4 9a-10b; Q 57 35a-41a; Q 64, A 3 68b-69b 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 66c-71b 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 25-28 430d-431c

2b. The distinction between natural and supernatural virtues

18 Augustine: City of God, BK XIX, CH 4, 513b-c 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 51, A 4 15a-d; Q 55, A 4, ANS and REP 6 28c-29d; Q 62, AA 1-2 60a-61b; Q 63, A 2, ANS and REP 2, 64b-65a; AA 3-4 65a-66c; Q 68, AA 1-2, 87c-90c; A 8 95c-96c; PART II-II, PROLOGUE, 379a-b 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART II, 149c-d

2c. The appearances of virtue: imperfect or conditional virtues; the counterfeits of virtue; natural or temperamental dispositions which simulate virtue

6 Herodotus: History, BK IX, 303c-304a 7 Plato: Phaedo, 225d-226c 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK IV, CH 9 375d-376a,c; BK VI, CH 12 [1144a11]-CH 13 [1145a2] 393d-394d; BK VII, CH 10 [1152a8-24] 403a-b / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 9 [1367b36-c7] 610a-b 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 51, A 1, ANS 12b-13c; Q 63, A 1 63a-64a; Q 65, A 1, REP 1 70b-72a; PART II-II, Q 23, A 7, ANS 487d-488d 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 68a 25 Montaigne: Essays, 103c-104d; 160c-161a; 200d-204d esp 203a-b; 336c; 394a-395b; 494d-495a 29 Cervantes: Don Quixote, PART II, 391b-d 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 435b-d; 534c 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 169b [fn 1] / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 256a-b; 258b-c / Practical Reason, 325c-327a / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 368d-369a 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 126a-b 54 Freud: Thoughts for the Times on War and Death, 759b-c

3. The order and connection of the virtues

3a. The equality and inequality of the virtues: the hierarchy of virtue and the degrees of vice

7 Plato: Protagoras, 48a-50d / Republic, BK IV, 346a-355a / Statesman, 605d-608d / Laws, BK I, 643a-652d esp 643b-d; BK III, 674a-b; BK XII, 795c-796b 8 Aristotle: Topics, BK III, CH 2 [117a26-b2] 164a; [118a16-17] 165a 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK IV, CH 3 [1123b28-1124a4] 370d; BK V, CH 1 [1129b25-1130a13] 377b-c; BK VI, CH 7 390a-d passim; CH 12-13 393b-394d; BK X, CH 6-8 430d-434a / Politics, BK III, CH 9 [1271b1-9] 467d; BK III, CH 7 [1279a40-b2] 476d 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK VIII, SECT 39, 288c; BK XI, SECT 10 303b-c 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR II, CH 2-3 7b-8a; CH 7 9c-10a; TR III, CH 6 11d-12b 18 Augustine: City of God, BK XIX, CH 20, 524a / Christian Doctrine, BK III, CH 10, 662a 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 61, AA 3-4 56b-58b; Q 62, A 4 62b-63a; Q 66 75b-81b; Q 68, AA 7-8 94c-96c; PART II-II, Q 4, A 7 407d-409a 21 Dante: Divine Comedy esp HELL, XI 15a-16b, PURGATORY, XVII [82-139] 79b-d, PARADISE, IV [28-63] 111a-b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 162c-163a; 183a-c; 200d-205b 27 Shakespeare: Coriolanus, ACT I, SC I [86-91] 365a 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 19-28 429d-431c esp PROP 22 430b-c, PROP 28 431c 33 Pascal: Pensées, 102 192b 42 Kant: Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 368c-d 43 Mill: Utilitarianism, 473c-476a,c 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 251a 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 314c-316a 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK V, 200c; 202d; BK VI, 246a-d

3b. The independence or interdependence of the virtues

Old Testament: Proverbs, 8:20; 10:31; 15:21; 28:1 Apocrypha: Wisdom of Solomon, 1:4-6—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 1:4-6 New Testament: Galatians, 5:22-23 / II Peter, 1:3-9 7 Plato: Protagoras, 48b-50b / Meno, 183d-184c / Republic, BK IV, 350a-355a / Statesman, 605d-608d / Laws, BK I, 642c-646a; BK III, 674a-b; BK XII, 795c-796b 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK IV, CH 3 [1123b28-1124a4] 370d; BK VI, CH 5 389a-c; CH 7 390a-d passim; CH 13 394b-d; BK VII, CH 10 [1152a7-8] 403a 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK IX, SECT 1 291a-c 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR III, CH 6 11d-12b 18 Augustine: City of God, BK XIX, CH 20, 524a 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 56, A 2, REP 2-3 30c-31a; Q 57, A 5 39a-40a; Q 58, A 2, REP 2-3 42a-43a; AA 4-5 44a-45d; Q 65 70a-75a; Q 68, A 5 92c-93c; PART II-II, Q 181, A 2 617d-618c 25 Montaigne: Essays, 204c-d 29 Cervantes: Don Quixote, PART II, 256c-d; 291d 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 19-24 429d-430d 32 Milton: Comus [331-489] 40b-44a / Paradise Lost, BK IX [335-339] 254b 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 534c 42 Kant: Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 368c-d; 377d 43 Mill: Utilitarianism, 469a-b 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 160b; 251a

4. The natural causes or conditions of virtue

4a. Natural endowments: temperamental dispositions toward virtue or vice; the seeds or nurseries of virtue

5 Euripides: Hecuba [582-603] 357d-358a / Iphigenia at Aulis [543-572] 429d-430a 6 Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, BK III, 396d-397a 7 Plato: Protagoras, 46d-47b; 59a / Meno 174a-190a,c esp 184b-c, 190a,c / Republic, BK VII, 389d-390b / Timaeus, 474c-d / Statesman, 607b-608d 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK II, CH 1 [1103a14-b2] 348b,d-349a; BK VI, CH 11 [1143b7-13] 393a; CH 13 [1144b1-1145a2] 394b-d; BK X, CH 9 [1179b23-26] 434a-c / Politics, BK II, CH 5 458a-460a esp [1263a38-b26] 458c-d; BK VII, CH 13 [1332a39-b10] 537a-b; CH 15 [1334b8-28] 539b-d 14 Plutarch: Alcibiades, 156c-d / Coriolanus, 174b,d-175a / Demetrius, 726c 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR III, CH 3 10a-11a 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 51, A 1 12b-13c; Q 63, A 1 63a-64a; A 2, REP 3, 64b-65a; A 3, ANS and REP 3 65a-d; Q 94, A 3 223a-c 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, VII [112-123] 63d-64a; XVI [91-105] 79b-c; XXX [109-145] 100c-d; PARADISE, VIII [91-148] 117d-118c 22 Chaucer: Tale of Wife of Bath [6691-6788] 274b-276a 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 86b; 96a-b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 43a-c; 200d-204d; 264b-265a; 307c-308a; 337b-c; 381b-c; 391c-392a 27 Shakespeare: Hamlet, ACT I, SC IV [23-37] 36a-b / All’s Well That Ends Well, ACT I, SC I [70-81] 43a; ACT II, SC III [124-151] 152d-153a 28 Harvey: On Animal Generation, 455d-456a 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 69d-70a; 76d-78d 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART V, PROP 4, SCHOL 453b-d 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 330d-331c; 333c-d; 337d-338c; 343a-345c; 362a-d / Political Economy, 375d-376b 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 192b 42 Kant: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 263d-264a / Practical Reason, 303b-304b / Judgement, 521c-523c 43 Mill: Representative Government, 367d-368a / Utilitarianism, 459c-460a; 469b-470c 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 413a-b 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART II, PAR 150, 56c-57a; ADDITIONS, 96 132c 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 310a-d; 318a-c 52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 19d-20b; 38d-40c; BK III, 53b-54b 53 James: Psychology, 886b-888a 54 Freud: Thoughts for the Times on War and Death, 757d-758a; 758d-759a

4b. The role of teaching in the spheres of moral and intellectual virtue

Old Testament: Proverbs, 4:1-4,10-11; 5:7-13; 6:23; 10:17; 13:1; 15:5 Apocrypha: Ecclesiasticus, 7:23; 30:3—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 7:25; 30:3 New Testament: II Timothy, 3:16 / Titus, 2:11-3:2 5 Euripides: Suppliants [838-917] 265d-266b / Hecuba [582-603] 357d-358a / Iphigenia at Aulis [543-572] 429d-430a 5 Aristophanes: Clouds 488a-506d esp [882-1104] 499b-502a 7 Plato: Laches 26a-37d esp 30a-b / Protagoras 38a-64d esp 43a-47c, 64a-d / Euthydemus 65a-84a,c / Symposium, 169c-170a / Meno 174a-190a,c esp 183b-190a,c / Gorgias, 258b-259c; 290b-291a / Republic, BK III-IV, 320c-355a; BK VII 388a-401d esp 389d-398c / Timaeus, 474c-d / Sophist, 556c-558d / Statesman, 605d-608d / Laws, BK I, 649b-d; BK II, 657c-658b; BK V, 688c-689c; BK XII, 796b-799a / Seventh Letter, 801c-802d; 809c-810d esp 810c-d 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 4 [1095b4-13] 340c-d; CH 9 345a-c; BK II, CH 1 [1103a14-17] 348b; CH 4 350d-351b; BK X, CH 9 [1179b23-1180a24] 434a-435c / Politics, BK II, CH 7 [1266b27-36] 462b-c; BK IV, CH 11 [1295a14-18] 495d; BK VII, CH 13 [1332a39-b10] 537a-b; CH 15 [1337a8-28] 539b-d; BK VIII 542a-548a,c esp CH 2 542b-d 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK I, CH 4 108d-110a; BK III, CH 1 175a-177c 14 Plutarch: Pericles, 121a-122b / Alcibiades, 156c-158b / Coriolanus, 174d-175a / Timoleon, 195a-b / Cato the Younger, 623a-b / Demetrius, 726a-d / Dion, 782c-788b 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR III, CH 2 10d 18 Augustine: Christian Doctrine, BK IV, CH 27-30 696a-697d 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 95, A 1, ANS 226c-227c; A 3 228c-229b 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 66c-d; 68b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 43a-c; 55d-62a esp 60c-61c; 69d-72b; 321a-c; 391c-392a 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 69d-70a 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, APPENDIX, IX 448a 36 Sterne: Tristram Shandy, 250b-251a 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 326c-d; 345b-c / Political Economy, 373c-374a; 375d-376b 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 34d; 338d-339a; 435b-d 42 Kant: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 260d-261d; 263a-b; 264b [fn 1]; 278a-b / Practical Reason, 327a-d; 356c-360d / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 365b-d; 377a / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 387d-388a / Judgement, 513d-514b 43 Mill: Utilitarianism, 456a-b; 457c-461c passim 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 413a-b 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 187, 65a-c; ADDITIONS, 97 132c-133a 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 593a 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK I, 47b-48d; BK VI, 244d-245d 52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK IV, 83a-88a passim; EPILOGUE, 411b-412d 53 James: Psychology, 274b-275a 54 Freud: The Sexual Enlightenment of Children, 122a,c / General Introduction, 573c-574b; 592b-c / New Introductory Lectures, 870a-c

4c. Training or practice as cause of virtue or vice: the process of habit formation

Old Testament: Proverbs, 22:6 / Jeremiah, 13:23—(D) Jeremias, 13:23 Apocrypha: Ecclesiasticus, 30:8—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 30:8 5 Euripides: Suppliants [838-917] 265d-266b / Electra [367-395] 330c-d / Iphigenia at Aulis [543-572] 429d-430a 7 Plato: Meno 174a-190a,c esp 174a, 190a / Republic, BK III, 329c-331c; BK VII, 389d-390b; 391c-d / Timaeus, 474d-475d / Theaetetus, 518b / Laws, BK I, 649b-d; BK II, 653a-c; 657c-658b 8 Aristotle: Categories, CH 10 [13a16-31] 18d 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 4 [1095b4-13] 340c-d; CH 9 345a-c; BK II, CH 1 348b,d-349b; CH 2 [1104b26-c3] 349d-350a; CH 4, 350d-351b; BK VI, CH 5 [1140b11-19] 389b-c; CH 11 [1143b7-13] 393a; BK VII, CH 10 [1152a25-33] 403b; BK IX, CH 9 [1170a4-12] 423d; BK X, CH 9 [1179b23-1180a24] 434a-435c / Politics, BK VII, CH 13 [1332a39-b10] 537a-b; CH 15 [1334b8-28] 539b-d; BK VIII, CH 1 [1337a19-21] 542b 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK I, CH 2 106d-108b; BK II, CH 18 161a-162b; BK III, CH 12 187b-188b; BK IV, CH 9, 238c-d 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK V, SECT 16 271c-d 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 51, AA 2-3 13c-15a; Q 63, A 2 64b-65a; Q 71, A 4, ANS 108b-109a 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 66c-d 25 Montaigne: Essays, 43a-c; 176c-177a; 200d-205b esp 202d-203a; 390b-393a 27 Shakespeare: Hamlet, ACT III, SC IV [140-170] 56a-b 29 Cervantes: Don Quixote, PART II, 332c 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 69d-70a; 78d-81c 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 71 197b-198a 42 Kant: Practical Reason, 327a-d / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 368d; 374c / Judgement, 513d-514b 43 Mill: Liberty, 294d-295a / Utilitarianism, 449c-450a 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 150-152 56c-57b; ADDITIONS, 96-97 132c-133a 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 305a; 311c-d; 313d-314a; 318a; 322a 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK I, 47b-48d; BK IX, 369c-d 53 James: Psychology, 78b-83b esp 81b-83b; 433a-434a; 711b-712a; 751b-752a

4d. The role of the family and the state in the development of moral virtue

4d(1) The influence of parental authority on the formation of character

Old Testament: Exodus, 12:24-27 / Deuteronomy, 4:9-10; 6:6-7; 11:18-19 / Proverbs, 1:8-9; 3:12; 4:1-13; 6:20-24; 13:1,24; 15:5; 19:18; 22:15; 23:13-24; 29:15,17 Apocrypha: Tobit, 4:1-19—(D) OT, Tobias, 4:1-20 / Ecclesiasticus, 7:23-24; 30:1-13—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 7:25-26; 30:1-13 New Testament: Ephesians, 6:4 / Colossians, 3:21 / I Thessalonians, 2:11 / Hebrews, 12:7-9 5 Euripides: Suppliants [838-917] 265d-266b 7 Plato: Laches, 26a-30c / Protagoras, 45d-47a / Meno, 186a-187b / Republic, BK V, 366a-c / Laws, BK V, 687d-688a; BK IX, 745d-746a 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK X, CH 9 [1180a18-b12] 434d-435b / Politics, BK I, CH 13 454a-455a,c passim, esp [1260b8-19] 455c; BK IV, CH 11 [1295a14-18] 495d; BK VII, CH 17 [1336b23-c3] 541b-c 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK I 253a-256d esp SECT 7-9 253b-254a, SECT 11 254b, SECT 14-16 254b-255d 13 Virgil: Aeneid, BK V [701-748] 205b-206b 14 Plutarch: Marcus Cato, 286c-287b 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK I, PAR 14-15 4c-5a; BK II, PAR 2-8 9b-10d; BK III, PAR 19-20 18b-19a; BK IX, PAR 19-22 67a-d 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 95, A 1, ANS 226c-227c; Q 105, A 4, ANS 318b-321a 22 Chaucer: Physician’s Tale [12,006-036] 367b-368a 25 Montaigne: Essays, 16c-d; 43a-c; 63d-64d; 66c-67a; 184a-187d; 414a-d 29 Cervantes: Don Quixote, PART II, 251b 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART III, PROP 55, SCHOL 413b-d; DEF 27, EXPL 419a-b 35 Locke: Civil Government, CH VI, SECT 55-69, 36c-40b passim 36 Swift: Gulliver’s Travels, PART I, 29b-31a; PART IV, 166b 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK IV, 15c; BK V, 22d-23a 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 326c-d; 327c-328a / Political Economy, 376b-377a 39 Smith: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 337c-d 42 Kant: Science of Right, 420b-421c 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 199d-200d; 314b-d; 372c 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 173-175 61a-d; PAR 239 76d; ADDITIONS, 111 134d-135a; 147 140c 52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK XI, 369a-373c passim; 395a-398d passim 54 Freud: Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis, 17d-18a / On Narcissism, 408b / The Ego and the Id, 704d-707d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 794c-795a esp 795b [fn 2] / New Introductory Lectures, 834b-c; 844b-c; 876c

4d(2) The moral use of rewards and punishments: the role of precept and counsel, praise and blame

Old Testament: Psalms, 94:10-13; 141:5—(D) Psalms, 93:10-13; 140:5 / Proverbs, 1:8-9,20-33; 3:12; 4:1-4; 5:7-13; 6:23; 9:7-8; 10:17; 13:1,18,24; 15:5,10,12,31-32; 17:10; 19:18,25; 20:30; 22:15; 23:13-14; 25:12; 29:15,17 / Isaiah, 28:7-13—(D) Isaias, 28:7-13 Apocrypha: Wisdom of Solomon, 12:25-26—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 12:25-26 / Ecclesiasticus, 7:23; 19:13-14; 30:1-13—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 7:25; 19:13-14; 30:1-13 New Testament: Luke, 17:3 / Ephesians, 5:11-13 / I Thessalonians, 2:11-13 / I Timothy, 4:13; 5:1-2,20 / II Timothy, 3:16; 4:2 / Titus, 2 / Hebrews, 3:13; 10:24-25; 12:5-11 5 Aeschylus: Eumenides [490-565] 86b-87a; [681-710] 88b-c 5 Sophocles: Antigone [1348-1353] 142d 5 Aristophanes: Clouds [1303-1464] 504b-506c 6 Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 399a; 400d-401a 7 Plato: Protagoras, 45b-d / Gorgias, 283b-285a / Republic, BK I, 313b-d; BK IX, 426d-427a / Laws, BK I, 643d; BK V, 688c-689a; BK IX, 745a-746a; BK X, 760d-761b 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK II, CH 3 [1104b14-18] 350a; BK III, CH 5 [1113b21-1114a2] 359d-360a; BK X, CH 9 [1179b4-1180a24] 434b-435a 14 Plutarch: Lycurgus, 41a-42b; 45c / Lysander, 354d 15 Tacitus: Annals, BK III, 57d-58b 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK I, PAR 14-16 4c-5b; PAR 19-23 5d-7a / City of God, BK XIX, CH 15-16 521a-522a 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 48, A 6, CONTRARY and REP 1 264a-d 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 87, A 2, REP 1 186c-187b; Q 92, A 2, REP 4 214d-215a,c; Q 95, A 1 226c-227c 22 Chaucer: Tale of Melibeus 401a-432a esp PAR 62-68 427b-429a 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART II, 141a-b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 16c-d; 43a-c; 66c; 73c-74a; 181d-183a; 184d-185d; 300c-306d esp 306a-c 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 69d-70a; 79b-c 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART III, DEF 27, EXPL 419a-b 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK I, CH II, SECT 5-6 105a-c; SECT 13 107d-108c; BK II, CH XXVIII, SECT 5-12 229c-231c passim, esp SECT 6 229d 36 Swift: Gulliver’s Travels, PART I, 28b 37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 41a-c 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK VI, 37d-38b; 39c-40c; BK VII, 47c-d; BK XII, 86b; BK XX, 139c 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 360b-361a / Political Economy, 372b-373b; 376c-377a / Social Contract, BK IV, 434b-435a 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 92a-b 42 Kant: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 264b [fn 1]; 270d-271a / Practical Reason, 325d-327d / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 383a-b / Judgement, 513d-514b 43 The Federalist: NUMBER 72, 217a-b 43 Mill: Liberty, 302d-312a passim, esp 306c-307a / Utilitarianism, 457c-461c passim, esp 458a-b; 464b-c 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 199d-200d; 314b-d; 363a-b 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 305a; 310c-d; 322a-c; 592d; 593b 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, EPILOGUE I, 655c-656b 52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 28d-32a; EPILOGUE, 411b-412d 53 James: Psychology, 203a-204b 54 Freud: Thoughts for the Times on War and Death, 757c; 758c-759b / Civilization and Its Discontents, 792b-795b / New Introductory Lectures, 876c-d

4d(3) The guidance of laws and customs: the limits of positive law with respect to commanding virtue and prohibiting vice

5 Aeschylus: Eumenides [490-565] 86b-87a; [681-710] 88b-c 5 Euripides: Orestes [491-525] 399a-b 6 Herodotus: History, BK I, 3a; BK VII, 232d-233a 6 Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, BK III, 396c-d; BK V, 478d-479b 7 Plato: Protagoras, 45b-47c / Gorgias, 271b-272b / Republic, BK II, 314b-c; BK III-IV, 320c-355a; BK VI, 377a-379c / Statesman, 607b-608d / Laws, BK I, 642d-648c; 650a-b; BK II, 653a-662a; BK VII, 724c-730d; BK VIII, 735c-738c; BK XII, 792c-d / Seventh Letter, 800b-c; 806b-c 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK II, CH 1 [1103b3-6] 349a; BK V, CH 1 [1129b12-24] 377a; CH 2 [1130b7-29] 378a-b / Politics, BK II, CH 5 458a-460a passim, esp [1263a38-b26] 458c-d; CH 7 [1266b14-1267a17] 462b-d; CH 9 [1269a13-1270a14] 465d-466b; BK VII, CH 13-17 536b-542a,c 14 Plutarch: Lycurgus 32a-48d / Lycurgus-Numa 61b,d-64a,c / Solon, 70c-74b / Lysander, 361a-d / Cleomenes, 659d-660a 15 Tacitus: Annals, BK III, 57b-58d 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK VI, PAR 2 35a-c / Christian Doctrine, BK III, CH 12 662c-663c 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 92, A 1 213c-214c; A 2, REP 4 214d-215a,c; Q 95, A 1 226c-227c; Q 96, AA 2-3 231c-233a; Q 98, A 6, ANS 244c-245b; Q 99, A 2 246b-247a; A 6 250a-251a; Q 100, A 9 261b-262b 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, VI [58-151] 61b-62c; XVI [85-114] 77d-78a; PARADISE, XV [97]-XVI [154] 129b-132a 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART II, 131a-b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 131b-132a 27 Shakespeare: Measure for Measure, ACT I, SC III [120-139] 176b-c; SC IV 177b-d; ACT II, SC I [225-270] 181a-c; ACT III, SC II [91-128] 190c-d 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 78d-81c 32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK XII [285-314] 325b-326a / Areopagitica 381a-412b esp 383a-395b 35 Locke: Human Understanding, 90a-d; BK I, CH II, SECT 8 105d-106a; SECT 20 110c-111a; BK II, CH XXVIII, SECT 9-13 230b-231c 35 Hume: Human Understanding, SECT VIII, DIV 76, 485a 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK IV, 13b,d-17b; BK V, 18b,d-19d; 21d-25a; BK VII, 44d-45c; 47c-50c; BK XII, 87c-88a; BK XIV, 105a-106b; BK XVI, 119d; BK XIX, 137c-142d 38 Rousseau: Political Economy, 372a-373b / Social Contract, BK IV, 434b-435a 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 92c-d; 100c-101b; 291d-292a 41 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 93c-94a; 389d 42 Kant: Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 366d; 367b-c; 373b-c / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 383a-b; 387b; 387d-388a / Science of Right, 397c-398a 43 Constitution of the U.S.: AMENDMENTS, XVIII 19c-d; XXI 20c 43 The Federalist: NUMBER 12, 58b-c 43 Mill: Liberty, 269b-271d; 272d-273d; 278a-281c passim; 286b-287a; 295d-296b; 300a-301c; 302d-323a,c / Representative Government, 335a-b; 348c-350a / Utilitarianism, 456a-d; 457c-458b; 467b-468a 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 197a-b; 222d-223b; 301c-d 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART I, PAR 38, 21d; PART III, PAR 150 56c-57a; PAR 234 75d-76a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 166b 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 317a-d 52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 28d-32a 53 James: Psychology, 190b-191a 54 Freud: Thoughts for the Times on War and Death, 758c-d

4d(4) The influence on moral character of poetry, music, and other arts: the guidance of history and example

Apocrypha: Wisdom of Solomon, 4:1-2—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 4:1-2 New Testament: I Corinthians, 8:6-13; 10:5-11 / Philippians, 3:17 / II Thessalonians, 3:7-9 / I Timothy, 5:20 / Hebrews, 4:11 / I Peter, 2:21-23 / II Peter, 2:6 / Jude, 7 5 Euripides: Suppliants [881-887] 266a-b 5 Aristophanes: Clouds 488a-506d esp [882-1104] 499b-502a / Frogs [1008-1098] 576b-577c / Thesmophoriazusae 600a-614d esp [330-567] 604b-606c 7 Plato: Protagoras, 46b-c / Republic, BK II-IV, 320c-355a; BK VII 388a-401d esp 389d-398c; BK VIII, 409d; BK X, 427c-434c / Timaeus, 455b-c / Laws, BK II, 653a-662a; BK III, 675c-676b; BK VII, 724c-730d 9 Aristotle: Politics, BK VIII, CH 2-7 542b-548a,c 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK XI, SECT 26 306b 14 Plutarch: Lycurgus, 33d-34a; 43b-d / Solon, 76a / Pericles, 121a-122b / Timoleon, 195a-b / Demetrius, 726a-d 15 Tacitus: Annals, BK XIV, 146b-c 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR III, CH 1-2, 10c-d 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK I, PAR 20-27 6a-7d; BK III, PAR 2-6 13c-14c; BK X, PAR 49-53 83c-85a / City of God, BK I, CH 31-33 147d-149a; BK II, CH 8-14 153d-157c; BK IV, CH 26-27 202a-203c 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, XVII [100-142] 133a-c 22 Chaucer: L’Envoy 550a-b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 197a-199c; 455d-456a 26 Shakespeare: Merchant of Venice, ACT V, SC I [66-110] 431b-d 29 Cervantes: Don Quixote esp PART I, xiiic-d, 1a-3b, 13b-16c, 183d-187c, 189d-191d, PART II, 252a-b, 322a-c, 427a-429d 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 38c-39d; 79c-80a; 85a-b 32 Milton: Areopagitica, 385a-386b 33 Pascal: Pensées, 11 173b-174a 36 Sterne: Tristram Shandy, 250b-251a 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK IV, 17b-18d 39 Smith: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 337d-338c 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 94a-b; 284a-b; 449a-b 41 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 225a-c; 311b 42 Kant: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 263a-b; 266d [fn 2] / Practical Reason, 327a-d / Judgement, 513d-514b; 523a-c; 587a 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 116b; 259b-c; 308b-d 46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 155c-d 53 James: Psychology, 826b-827a

4e. The moral quality of human acts

4e(1) The distinction between human or moral acts and the nonvoluntary or reflex acts of a man

7 Plato: Protagoras, 45b-c / Timaeus, 474b-d 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 13 [1102a13-17] 347c; [1102b34-c13] 347d-348a; BK III, CH 1, 355b,d-357b; CH 5 359c-361a; CH 12 [1119a21-34] 365d-366a / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 10 [1368b7-12] 611d 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK XI, SECT 18 304b-305b 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK I, PAR 19 5d 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 1, AA 1-3 609b-612a; Q 6 644a-651c; Q 18, A 6, ANS 697d-698c; Q 21, A 2 718a-d 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVI [52-81] 77b-c 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 61a-b 27 Shakespeare: Hamlet, ACT V, SC II [236-255] 70b-c 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, DEF 8 424b-c; PROP 1-18 424c-429d 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 337d-338a 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 164b-c; 235c-d / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 282b-283d / Practical Reason, 304a-d / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 378a-b / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 386d-387a,c 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 311b-d; 592b 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 688a-690a 53 James: Psychology, 186b-187a; 807a-808a; 814b-819a passim, esp 814b-815a, 818b

4e(2) The criteria of goodness and evil in human acts

7 Plato: Republic, BK IV, 354d-355c; BK X, 439b-d / Laws, BK IX, 747b-d 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK II, CH 4 350d-351b; CH 6 351c-352d passim; BK VI, CH 12 [1144a12-24] 393d-394a 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK I, CH 6 110c-112b; CH 11 116d-118d; BK III, CH 1 175a-177c; CH 3 178d-180a; CH 10 185d-187a; CH 20 192d-193d; BK IV, CH 5-6 228a-232c 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK II, SECT 11 258a-b; BK IV, SECT 24 265c-d; SECT 39 267a; BK V, SECT 12 271a; SECT 14-16 271b-d; BK VII, SECT 20 281b; SECT 55 283b-c; BK VIII, SECT 1 285a-b; BK IX, SECT 1 291a-c; SECT 16 293a 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK II, PAR 15-17 17a-18a 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, QQ 18-21 693b,d-720a,c 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, XI 15a-16b; PURGATORY, XVII [82-139] 79b-d; XXVII [124-142] 95d-96a 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 61d-62a; 85d; 86b; 91b-92d; 96a-b; PART II, 149b-c; PART IV, 272c 25 Montaigne: Essays, 103c-104d; 159a-162c 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 70d-71b 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PREF-DEF 2 422b,d-424a; DEF 8 424b-c; PROP 1-28 424c-431c esp PROP 18-19 428d-429d, PROP 22 430b-c; PROP 45-46 438a-d; PROP 50-54 439b-440c; PROP 58-59 441d-442d; PROP 61-63 443a-444a; PROP 65-66 444b-d 33 Pascal: Pensées, 499 260b 35 Locke: Human Understanding, 90a-d; BK I, CH II, SECT 5-6 105a-c; BK II, CH XXI, SECT 43 188d; SECT 55-56 192c-193b; CH XXVIII, SECT 4-17 229b-232d 36 Sterne: Tristram Shandy, 257a-268a 37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 38c-40a 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 343a-345c 39 Smith: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 346c-347d 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 114d-115a; 169b [fn 1] / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 253d-254d; 262a-c; 270c-d / Practical Reason, 317b-318c; 321b-329a esp 325a-327d; 341c-342a; 358a / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 387b; 387d-388a; 389a-390a,c / Judgement, 595a-d 43 Mill: Liberty, 270a-271d; 286b-287a; 307b-d / Utilitarianism 445a-476a,c esp 448a, 454a-455a, 461c-464d, 467b-471b 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 112a-b; 145c-d; 310d-311a 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART II, PAR 113, 41d-42a; PAR 135 47b-d; PAR 140 49b-54a; PART III, PAR 234 75d-76a; ADDITIONS, 56 125b-c; 67 126d; 86 129c; 91 131a-d 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 592d-593a 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK XIV, 611a-c 53 James: Psychology, 796a-798a passim 54 Freud: Thoughts for the Times on War and Death, 758a; 759a-c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 792b-c

4e(3) Circumstances as affecting the morality of human acts

9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK II, CH 3 [1104b24-27] 350b; BK III, CH 1 [1110a8-1111a20] 356c-357a; BK IV, CH 5 372d-373c 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 7, 651d-655a; Q 18, AA 10-11 701b-703a 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 73, A 7 124d-125c 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 86b; 91a-b; 96a-b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 13d-14c; 103c-104d; 203a-c 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 76d-78d 33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 19a-62a passim 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 54 192b-c 35 Hume: Human Understanding, SECT VIII, DIV 76 485a-c 37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 271c-273a,c 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 343a-d; 347d-348a; 362a-d; 363a-366d / Social Contract, BK II, 393b-c 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 169c-170a 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 283a; 429d-430b 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART II, PAR 115-117 42b-d; ADDITIONS, 74 127d-128a; 144 140a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 165a-166b 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK I, 9c-10d; BK VIII, 303a-305b; BK XIII, 578d-579a; BK XV, 627b-c; EPILOGUE I, 645a-646c; EPILOGUE II, 686c-687a 54 Freud: General Introduction, 531a-d

5. Psychological factors in the formation of moral virtue

5a. The emotions and pleasure and pain as the matter of virtue: the role of desire or appetite

7 Plato: Laches, 32c / Protagoras, 59a-62d / Phaedrus, 120a-122a / Gorgias, 275d-285a / Republic, BK IV, 347a-348d; 350a-355a; BK VI, 374c; BK VII, 390b / Timaeus, 466b; 474b-d / Laws, BK I-II, 644b-653c; BK V, 689c-690c; BK VI, 712b; BK VII, 714c-716a; BK VIII, 735c-738c 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [246b20-247a19] 330a-b 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 13 [1102b13-1103a11] 348a-d; BK II, CH 2 [1104a19]-CH 3 [1105a17] 349c-350c; CH 6 [1106b8-1107a28] 352a-d; CH 7 [1108a30-b6] 353d-354a; CH 9 [1109a32-b13] 355a,c; BK III, CH 1 [1111b22-c3] 357a-b; CH 9-12 363d-366a,c; BK IV, CH 5, 372d-373c; CH 8 375a-d; BK VII 395a-406a,c; BK X, CH 1-5 426a-430d passim; CH 8 [1178a8-22] 432d; CH 9 [1179b4-1180a24] 434b-435a / Politics, BK I, CH 13 [1260a4-8] 454c-455a,c; BK VII, CH 7 531d-532c; CH 15 [1334b8-28] 539b-d; BK VIII, CH 5 544c-546a passim 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK II, CH 18 161a-162b; BK III, CH 24, 208b-210a 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK VII, SECT 55, 283b-c; BK IX, SECT 1 291a-c; SECT 7 292b 14 Plutarch: Antony, 753d-754a; 760d-761a; 761c; 772c / Dion, 798b-d 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK VIII, PAR 10-11 55c-56b; BK X, PAR 41-53 81c-85a / City of God, BK XIV, CH 5-9 379c-385b 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 24, 727a-730a esp A 4 729c-730a; Q 34, A 4 771c-772b; Q 39, A 2 790d-791b 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 50, A 3 8b-9a; Q 56, A 4 32b-33c; A 5, REP 1 33c-34b; QQ 59-60 45d-54d; Q 107, A 4, ANS 329d-330d; PART II-II, Q 15, A 3 453c-454c 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, I-II 1a-4a; PURGATORY 53a-105d esp XV [40]-XVIII [75] 75d-80c 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 61a-63a; 68b-c; 85d; 96a-b; PART II, 141a-b; PART IV, 272c 25 Montaigne: Essays, 20d-22a passim; 89b-91b; 118d-119d; 124c-125a; 159a-162c passim; 200d-204d passim; 350d-354b; 540b-c 27 Shakespeare: Othello, ACT I, SC III [322-337] 212b-c 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 66c-d; 78a-d 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, DEF 8 424b-c; PROP 1-18 424c-429d esp PROP 18, DEMONST 428d-429a; PROP 59-73 442b-447a esp PROP 60, 442d-443a 32 Milton: Areopagitica, 390b-391a 33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 64b-67b / Pensées, 160 202a-b; 412-413 242a; 423 243b; 502, 260b-261a 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 35 186b-d; SECT 46-48 189d-190d; SECT 52-56 191d-193b; SECT 71-72 197b-198c 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 343a-b 42 Kant: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 256b; 258d-259a; 282d-283d; 286a-c / Practical Reason, 298b-c; 341c-342a / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 365b-366d; 368d-369a; 375a-b / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 385a-c / Judgement, 586d-587a 43 Mill: Liberty, 295b-d / Utilitarianism, 461c-464d 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 311a-314b passim; 316a-317a; 318d-319a 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK VI, 245b-c; 248b-250a 53 James: Psychology, 799a-b; 808a-814b passim, esp 810a; 816a-817a 54 Freud: Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis, 16c / General Introduction, 501d-504b / Thoughts for the Times on War and Death, 758a-d / New Introductory Lectures, 837d-838d; 844c

5b. Deliberation and judgment in the formation of virtue: the role of reason

5 Euripides: Hippolytus [373-387] 228b-c 6 Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 370a-c 7 Plato: Republic, BK IV, 350a-355a / Laws, BK III, 669b-d / Seventh Letter, 810c-d 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 13 [1102b13-1103a3] 348a-c; BK II, CH 6 351c-352d passim; BK III, CH 1-5 355b,d-361a; CH 12 [1119a35-b19] 366a,c; BK VI, CH 1-2 387a-388b; CH 5, 389a-c; CH 9-13 391c-394d passim; BK VII, CH 7-10 400d-403c passim; BK IX, CH 8 [1168b28-1169a11] 422b-d; BK X, CH 8 [1178a16-24] 432d-433a; CH 9 [1179b4-1180a13] 434b-d / Politics, BK VII, CH 13 [1332a39-b10] 537a-b; CH 15 [1334b8-28] 539b-d 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK II, SECT 5 257b-c; BK IX, SECT 7 292b 18 Augustine: City of God, BK XIX, CH 4, 512a-b 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 45, A 4, ANS 812b-813a 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 56, A 3, ANS 31a-32b 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 64a-c; PART II, 141a-b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 21c-22a; 115b-119d; 124c-125a; 159a-162c; 200d-205b; 353c-354b 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 66c-67b 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 17, SCHOL 428c-d; PROP 23-24 430c-d; PROP 59-73 442b-447a; PART V, PROP 1-20 452d-458a 32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK IX [335-375] 254b-255b 33 Pascal: Pensées, 381-383 238b 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 46-54 189d-192c; SECT 69 196d-197a 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 337d-338a; 344d-345c 42 Kant: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 256c-257d; 263a-b; 266b-c / Practical Reason, 305d-306a; 321b-325c; 339b-d; 357c-360d / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 374a-c; 378a-b / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 387d-388a 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 297b 46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 165c-166b 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 310c-d; 312a-313a; 593a-b 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK VI, 248b-250a 53 James: Psychology, 14b-15a; 202b; 886b-888a

5c. Intention and choice as conditions of virtue: the role of will

Apocrypha: Ecclesiasticus, 15:11-20—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 15:11-21 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 13 [1102b13-1103a4] 348a-c; BK II, CH 6 351c-352d esp [1106b36-1107a9] 352c; BK III, CH 1-5 355b,d-361a; CH 12 [1119a21-34] 365d-366a; BK VI, CH 1-2 387a-388b; BK VII, CH 7-10 400d-403c; BK VIII, CH 13 [1163a21-24] 415d; BK IX, CH 8 [1168b28-1169a11] 421d-422d; BK X, CH 8 [1178a34-b8] 433a-b / Politics, BK VII, CH 13 [1332a28-32] 537a 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK I, CH 22 127c-128c 18 Augustine: City of God, BK XIV, CH 5-6 379c-380c; CH 13 387c-388c 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 50, A 5 10b-d; Q 55, A 1, REP 2 26b-27a; Q 56, A 6, 34b-35a; Q 60, AA 2-3 50d-52b 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVIII [40-75] 80b-c; XXVII [124-142] 95d-96a 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART IV, 272c 24 Rabelais: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 65c-66b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 13d-14c 32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK III [80-134] 137a-138a 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 51-54 191b-192c 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 337d-338a 42 Kant: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 256a-b; 259a-b / Practical Reason, 291b,d [fn 1]; 304a-d; 309d / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 378a-b 43 Mill: Liberty, 295a-297b / Utilitarianism, 463a-464d 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 67 126d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 165c-166b 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK VI, 248b-250a 52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 20a-c; BK V, 129d-132b 53 James: Psychology, 186b-187a; 271b-275a passim, esp 272b-273a, 274a-275a; 806a-808a; 814b-819a passim, esp 818a-b; 825a-827a

6. Virtue in relation to other moral goods or principles

6a. Duty and virtue

12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK VI, SECT 2 274a; BK VIII, SECT 32 287d-288a 14 Plutarch: Pericles, 121a-122b 18 Augustine: City of God, BK XIX, CH 19 523b-d 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVII [82]-XVIII [75] 79b-80c; XXX-XXXI 99b-102b passim 25 Montaigne: Essays, 300c-307a esp 303a-c 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 74b-c 38 Rousseau: Political Economy, 369b-370a; 372b-373b / Social Contract, BK I, 393b-c 42 Kant: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 258d-259a; 262a-263c; 267b-d; 269b [fn 1] / Practical Reason, 305d-307d; 325a-329a esp 325c, 327d-329a / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 366d-368d; 373b-d / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 383a-390a,c esp 383a-384d, 389a-390a,c 43 Mill: Liberty, 290c-291a / Utilitarianism, 453c-454a; 457c-461c passim; 464d-476a,c passim 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART II, PAR 135, 47b-d; PART III, PAR 150 56c-57a; ADDITIONS, 86 129c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 165c-166b 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 304a; 310d; 314a; 592c-593b passim

6b. The relation of virtue to pleasure

7 Plato: Protagoras, 59a-62c / Gorgias, 275d-285a / Republic, BK II, 313d; BK IX, 421a-425b / Laws, BK I, 649d-650b; BK II, 656d-658b; BK III, 669b-d; BK V, 689c-690c / Seventh Letter, 801b-c; 806a 8 Aristotle: Topics, BK I, CH 5 [102a14-21] 145c; BK III, CH 3 [118b27-36] 165d-166a / Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [246b20-247a19] 330a-b 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 8 [1098b30-1099a30] 344b-d; BK II, CH 7 [1108a23-29] 353d; BK IV, CH 8 375a-d; BK VII 395a-406a,c passim, esp CH 11-14 403c-406a,c; BK IX, CH 9 423a-424b; BK X, CH 1-5 426a-430d passim / Politics, BK II, CH 7 [1266b27-1267a17] 462b-d; BK VII, CH 1 527a-d 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK II, CH 11, 151a-b; CH 19, 163b 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK III, SECT 10 257d-258a; BK III, SECT 6 261a-c; BK VI, SECT 16 275b-d; BK VIII, SECT 10 286b; SECT 19 286d-287a; SECT 28 287c; SECT 39 288c; BK IX, SECT 1 291a-c 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK VIII, PAR 10-11 55c-56b; BK X, PAR 41-53 81c-85a 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 32, A 6 762d-763c; Q 34, A 1 768c-769d; A 4 771c-772b 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 60, A 4, ANS 52b-53a; A 5, ANS 53a-54d 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XXX-XXXI 99b-102b 24 Rabelais: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 65c-66b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 28a-d; 162c-167a; 200d-205b; 392a-b; 408a-b; 540b-d 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 71d-72b 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 1-18 424c-429d 33 Pascal: Pensées, 412-413 242a; 423 243b 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 35 186b-d; SECT 71 197b-198a 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 192b 42 Kant: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 256c-257c / Practical Reason, 298a-300a; 304a-307d; 338c-355d passim / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 365b-366d / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 387b-388a / Judgement, 478a-479d 43 Mill: Utilitarianism, 447b-450b; 463a-464d 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 116b; 393a-b 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 316b-317a 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK V, 198b

6c. The relation of virtue to wealth

Old Testament: Exodus, 20:15,17; 23:3,6,8 / Leviticus, 19:9-11,13,35-36; 25 / Deuteronomy, 5:19,21; 15:7-15; 17:16-17; 22:1-3; 24:10-22; 26:12-13 / Nehemiah, 5—(D) II Esdras, 5 / Job, 29:12-17; 31:16-23 / Proverbs, 1:10-19; 3:27-28; 11:1,24-28; 15:16,27; 16:8; 17:23; 19:17,22; 20:10; 21:6-7,13,26; 22:9,16,22-23; 23:4-5; 28:27; 29:7; 30:8-9 / Ecclesiastes, 5:10-20—(D) Ecclesiastes, 5:9-19 / Isaiah, 10:1-3; 33:15-17; 58:3-12—(D) Isaias, 10:1-3; 33:15-17; 58:3-12 / Jeremiah, 6:12-13; 8:10; 17:11; 22:13-17—(D) Jeremias, 6:12-13; 8:10; 17:11; 22:13-17 / Ezekiel, 22:12-16,24-31—(D) Ezechiel, 22:12-16,24-31 / Amos, 2:6-8 Apocrypha: Tobit, 1 passim; 4:1-19 passim; 12:8-10—(D) OT, Tobias, 1 passim; 4:1-20 passim; 12:8-10 / Ecclesiasticus, 7:10; 8:2; 12:1-6; 14:13; 26:29—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 7:10; 8:2-3; 12:1-7; 14:13; 26:28 New Testament: Matthew, 5:40,42; 6:1-4,19-21,24-34; 19:16-30 / Luke, 12:13-34 / Acts, 20:33-34 / II Corinthians, 8-9 / I Timothy, 6:6-11,17-19 / Hebrews, 13:5 / James, 5:1-6 5 Aeschylus: Persians [165-172] 17a / Agamemnon [355-389] 55d-56b; [750-781] 60a-b 5 Sophocles: Antigone [280-303] 133c-d 5 Euripides: Helen [903-908] 306d-307a / Electra [367-395] 330c-d; [938-944] 335c / Phoenician Maidens [528-567] 382c-d 5 Aristophanes: Plutus 629a-642d esp [415-618] 633d-636d 6 Herodotus: History, BK III, 121b-c; BK V, 169d-170a; BK VI, 201d-202c; BK IX, 288b; 297b-d 6 Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 379c-d 7 Plato: Meno, 175b-178d esp 178c-d / Republic, BK I, 296c-297b; 304a-c; BK II, 312b-313a; BK III-IV, 341c-343b; BK VIII, 405c-408a; BK X, 436c-437c / Critias, 485b-d / Laws, BK II, 656d-658b; BK V, 694a-695a; BK VIII, 733b-734a; BK IX, 751c-d 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK II, CH 7 [1107b9-21] 353a-b; BK IV, CH 1-2 366b,d-370b; BK X, CH 8 432d-434a passim / Politics, BK II, CH 5 458a-460a passim, esp [1263a38-b26] 458c-d; CH 7 [1266b27-1267a17] 462b-d; CH 11 [1273a22-b8] 469d-470a; BK VII, CH 1 527a-d; CH 8 [1328a21-b4] 532c-d; CH 13 [1331b29-1332a32] 536b-537a / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 16, 638b-c 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK II, CH 19, 163b; BK IV, CH 6 230b-232c 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK VIII, SECT 33 288a 14 Plutarch: Pericles, 130b-c / Aristides-Marcus Cato, 291b-292b / Lysander, 361a-d 15 Tacitus: Annals, BK II, 58a 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK VI, PAR 16 40a-c 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 60, A 5, ANS 53a-54d; Q 65, A 1, REP 1 70b-72a; Q 84, A 1 174b-175a; PART II-II, Q 186, A 3, REP 4 652d-655b 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, VII [25-96] 9d-10c; XIX [1-123] 26d-28a; PURGATORY, XIX [70]-XX [123] 82b-84c 22 Chaucer: Tale of Wife of Bath [6691-6788] 274b-276a / Tale of Melibeus, PAR 49-52 422a-425b; PAR 77, 430b-431a 24 Rabelais: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III, 133b-135b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 109d-110c; 126b-131a passim 27 Shakespeare: All’s Well That Ends Well, ACT II, SC III [123-153] 152d-153a / Timon of Athens 393a-420d esp ACT IV, SC III [24-47] 410d-411a, [382-462] 415a-d 29 Cervantes: Don Quixote, PART II, 221d-222c; 338b 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 7d-8b; 77d-78a; 86b-c; 92a-b 33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 91a-94a 37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 178b-d; 283d-284a 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK V, 19a-d; BK VII, 44d-45c; BK XX, 146b-d 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 327c-328a; 360b-361a / Political Economy, 375b-d / Social Contract, BK III, 411a-b 39 Smith: Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 265d-266b 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 22c 42 Kant: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 256a-b / Practical Reason, 330d-331a / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 370b-d 43 Mill: Representative Government, 335b-c / Utilitarianism, 463a-b 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 102d-103a; 413c-d; 491b; 492b-c; 493c; 494b 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 241, 76d-77a 50 Marx: Capital, 61d; 77c-78b 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK I, 50b; BK V, 194d; 197b-c

6d. Virtue and honor

Old Testament: Proverbs, 10:7; 14:34 / Isaiah, 14:20—(D) Isaias, 14:20 Apocrypha: Wisdom of Solomon, 3:16-17; 4—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 3:16-17; 4 / Ecclesiasticus, 10:19-31; 44:1-15; 46:11-12—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 10:23-34; 44:1-15; 46:13-15 New Testament: Romans, 2:10 4 Homer: Iliad 3a-179d esp BK I 3a-9a,c, BK IV [401-418] 28a, BK V [520-532] 35c, BK IX, 57a-64a,c 5 Sophocles: Ajax 143a-155a,c esp [393-480] 146c-147b / Electra [1058-1097] 164d-165a / Philoctetes [1408-1444] 194d-195a,c 5 Euripides: Hippolytus [373-430] 228b-d / Heracleidae [297-332] 251a-b / Andromache [319-332] 318a; [693-705] 321a-b; [768-801] 321d-322a / Iphigenia at Aulis [543-572] 429d-430a 6 Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 397d-398c 7 Plato: Symposium, 152b-153b / Meno, 178c-d / Republic, BK II, 310c-315c; BK VIII, 403a-405c / Laws, BK III, 673d-674c 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK II, CH 5 [1105b29-1106a9] 351b-c; CH 7 [1107b22-1108a3] 353b-c; BK III, CH 7 [1115b10-13] 361d; BK IV, CH 3-4 370b-372d; BK IX, CH 8 421d-423a / Politics, BK II, CH 7 [1266b36-1267a2] 462c; BK VII, CH 1 527a-d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 9 608c-611c 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK II, SECT 11 258a-b; BK VI, SECT 16 275b-d; SECT 51 279b-c; BK IX, SECT 30 294b-c 14 Plutarch: Aristides, 265c-d / Lysander, 354d / Cato the Younger, 637b-c / Agis, 648b,d-649a 15 Tacitus: Annals, BK III, 58a; BK XV, 162d-163a 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK X, PAR 59-64 86b-87d / City of God, BK V, CH 12-20 216d-226a 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 2, A 2 616d-617b 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 25, A 1, REP 2 501b-502a; PART III, Q 25, A 1 839d-840d; PART III SUPPL, Q 96, A 7, REP 3 1061b-1062a 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, IV [67-147] 6a-7a; PURGATORY, XI [73-120] 69c-70a; PARADISE, VI [112-126] 114d-115a 22 Chaucer: Prologue [43-78] 159b-160a / Knight’s Tale 174a-211a / Franklin’s Tale [11,067-844] 361b-364b / Physician’s Tale 366a-371a esp [12,137-191] 369b-370b 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 74c-75b 24 Rabelais: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 65c-d 25 Montaigne: Essays, 103c-105c; 112a-d; 126b-127c; 181d-183c; 300c-307a; 390a-391c; 462b-c; 495d-496d 26 Shakespeare: Richard II, ACT I, SC I [165-195] 322b-c / 1 Henry IV, ACT I, SC II [218-240] 437c-d; SC III [160-208] 439b-d / Julius Caesar, ACT V, SC V [68-75] 596a,c 27 Shakespeare: Hamlet, ACT IV, SC IV [39-66] 59b-c / All’s Well That Ends Well, ACT II, SC III [124-153] 152d-153a 29 Cervantes: Don Quixote esp PART II, 222c-d, 227d-228d 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 92a-b 33 Pascal: Pensées, 404 241a 35 Locke: Human Understanding, 90a-d; BK II, CH XXVIII, SECT 10-12 230b-231c 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK III, 11a-d; BK IV, 13b,d-15a 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 360b-361a; 362a-d / Social Contract, BK IV, 434b-435a 39 Smith: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 346c-347c; 354c-d 42 Kant: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 256a-b; 258b-c 43 The Federalist: NUMBER 57, 177b-c; NUMBER 72, 217a-b 43 Mill: Liberty, 303d-304c 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 124d-125d; 310d-311a; 412b-d 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 317a-d passim; 322b-c; 592d-593a 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK XV, 619c-621b; EPILOGUE I, 647b-649b 52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK VI, 153d-157b

6e. Virtue in relation to friendship and love

5 Euripides: Iphigenia at Aulis [334-414] 427d-428c 6 Herodotus: History, BK VI, 258d 6 Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 419a 7 Plato: Phaedrus, 128d-129a / Symposium, 152b-155c / Republic, BK I, 299b-c / Seventh Letter, 804c 8 Aristotle: Topics, BK III, CH 6 [116a31-39] 162d 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK VIII-IX 406b,d-426a,c / Politics, BK II, CH 5, [1263a38-b26] 458c-d / Rhetoric, BK II, CH 4 [1381a12-b38] 626d-627d 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK II, CH 22 167d-170a passim; BK IV, CH 2 223d-224b 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK XI, SECT 9 303b; SECT 13 303d 14 Plutarch: Alcibiades, 156c-158b / Pelopidas, 233b-d / Cato the Younger, 623a-b 15 Tacitus: Histories, BK I, 208b-c 18 Augustine: Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 27-30, 631d-633b 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 23, AA 3-8 485a-489c; Q 31, A 1, REP 3 536d-537c 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, XI 15a-16b; PURGATORY, XVII [82]-XVIII [75] 79b-80c 22 Chaucer: Troilus and Cressida, BK II, STANZA 122-123 37b; BK III, STANZA 254-258 87b-88a / Franklin’s Tale 351b-366a esp [11,830-928] 364b-366a 23 Machiavelli: Prince, CH XVIII, 24b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 82b-88d; 390a-b 27 Shakespeare: Hamlet, ACT III, SC II [58-79] 49c-d 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 71 446a-b 36 Swift: Gulliver’s Travels, PART IV, 165b-166a 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK V, 18d-19d 38 Rousseau: Political Economy, 373c-374a 43 Mill: Utilitarianism, 454a-455a; 474b-c 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 310c-d; 592d 52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK IV, 40b-c

7. The role of virtue in political theory

7a. The cultivation of virtue as an end of government and the state

6 Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 395d-399a 7 Plato: Protagoras, 46b-d / Gorgias, 282d-283a / Republic, BK II-VII 310c-401d / Statesman, 605d-608d / Laws, BK I, 640d-652d; BK III, 669b-670b; BK XII, 794a-799a,c / Seventh Letter, 806b-c 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 9 [1099b25-32] 345b; CH 13 [1102a5-25] 347b-c; BK II, CH 1 [1103b3-6] 349a; BK V, CH 1 [1129b12-24] 377a; CH 2 [1130b7-29] 378a-b; BK X, CH 9 [1179b23-1180a27] 434a-435c / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253a1-39] 446b-d; CH 13 [1260b8-19] 455c; BK II, CH 7 [1266b27-1267a17] 462b-d; CH 9 [1269a13-1270a14] 465d-466b; BK III, CH 9, 477c-478d; BK VII, CH 1-3 527a-530a; CH 8 [1328a21-b4] 532c-d; CH 13-15 536b-539d 13 Virgil: Aeneid, BK VI [847-853] 233b-234a; BK XII [829-842] 376a-b 14 Plutarch: Lycurgus 32a-48d esp 36a, 48b-c / Lycurgus-Numa 61b,d-64a,c / Solon 64b,d-77a,c / Lysander, 361a-d 15 Tacitus: Annals, BK III, 57b-58d 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 92, A 1 213c-214c 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVI [52-114] 77b-78a; PARADISE, XXVIII [121-148] 148c-d 25 Montaigne: Essays, 60c-61c; 306a-d 29 Cervantes: Don Quixote, PART II, 353a 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 54a-b 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2, 435b-436a; PROP 73 446c-447a 35 Locke: Toleration, 15d / Civil Government, CH IX, SECT 128 54b-c / Human Understanding, BK I, CH II, SECT 5-6 105a-c 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK III, 9b-11d; BK IV, 15c-17b; BK V, 18b,d-19d; 21d-25a; BK XVI, 119d 38 Rousseau: Political Economy, 372a-377b / Social Contract, BK I, 393b-c; BK III, 411a-c; BK IV, 434b-435a 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 100c-101b 41 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 54d-55a 43 Constitution of the U.S.: AMENDMENTS, XVIII 19c-d; XXI 20c 43 Mill: Representative Government, 334a-c; 336c-338d; 346c-350a / Utilitarianism, 464d-476a,c passim, esp 467b-468a, 474d-476a 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 178b-c 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 241, 76d-77a; PAR 257 80b; PAR 273, 91b-d; ADDITIONS, 183 148d-149a / Philosophy of History, PART IV, 365d-366a 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK VI, 244d-245d

7b. Civic virtue: the virtue of the good citizen compared with the virtue of the good man

Old Testament: Exodus, 22:28 / Proverbs, 16:13; 20:2; 23:1-3; 24:21; 25:6-7 / Ecclesiastes, 8:2-3; 10:20 Apocrypha: Ecclesiasticus, 41:17-18—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 41:21-23 New Testament: Matthew, 22:16-22 / Mark, 12:14-17 / Luke, 20:22-25 / Acts, 23:5 / Romans, 13:1-7 / Titus, 3:1 / I Peter, 2:13,21 5 Sophocles: Antigone 131a-142d esp [633-765] 136c-137d 5 Aristophanes: Knights 470a-487a,c esp [1316-1408] 486a-487a,c 6 Herodotus: History, BK V, 175b; BK VII, 233a-d; 258d 6 Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 370a-c; BK II, 397d-398c; 402d-404a; BK III, 425a-427c passim; BK VI, 511c-d 7 Plato: Protagoras, 43b-47c / Meno, 174d-176a esp 175d-176a / Apology 200a-212a,c / Crito 213a-219a,c / Republic, BK I, 300b-306b; BK IV, 346a-355a / Statesman, 605d-608d / Laws, BK III, 669b-670c; 672d-674d; BK V, 686d-691b; BK VI, 706b-c; BK VIII, 740d-741a / Seventh Letter, 805d-806a; 806d 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 9 [1099b29-32] 345b; BK III, CH 8 [1116b15-c3] 362b-d; BK V, CH 1 [1129b12-1130a13] 377a-c; CH 2 [1130b7-29] 378a-b; BK VI, CH 8 [1141b23-1142a11] 390d-391a; BK X, CH 9 434a-436a,c / Politics, BK I, CH 13 [1259b33-1260a20] 454b-d; BK III, CH 11 [1273a22-b8] 469d-470a; BK III, CH 4-5 473c-475d; CH 9 [1280b3-11] 478a-b; CH 13 [1283b44-1284a3] 482a; CH 15 [1286a22-25] 484c-d; CH 18 487a,c; BK IV, CH 7 [1293b2-7] 493a-b; BK VII, CH 2 [1324a24-b6] 528b-c; CH 3, 529b-530a; CH 7 531d-532c; CH 9 [1328b33-1329a2] 533b; CH 13-15 536b-539d; BK VIII, CH 1 [1337a11-18] 542a 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK II, CH 10 148c-150a; BK III, CH 7 182b-184a 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK III, SECT 1 256b,d; BK III, SECT 4-5 260b-261a; BK IV, SECT 4 264a; SECT 29 266a; BK V, SECT 16 271c-d; SECT 22 272b; BK VI, SECT 14 274d-275a; BK VII, SECT 5 280a-b; SECT 13 280c; SECT 66 284b-c; BK IX, SECT 23 293c; BK X, SECT 6, 297a-b; BK XI, SECT 8 303a-b; SECT 21 305d-306a 14 Plutarch: Lycurgus, 45b; 48b-c / Coriolanus, 174b,d-175a / Aristides, 263d / Lysander, 361a-d / Agesilaus, 480b,d-481a / Cleomenes, 659d-660a / Demosthenes, 699c-700a 15 Tacitus: Histories, BK I, 191c-d; BK IV, 267c-d 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR II 6b-10a 18 Augustine: City of God, BK II, CH 21 161b-162d; BK V, CH 12-13 216d-220a; BK XIX, CH 17 522b-523a; CH 21 524a-525a; CH 24-26 528b-529a 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 61, A 5 58b-59d; Q 92, A 1, REP 3 213c-214c 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, VI [58-75] 9a; XI [1-66] 15a-d; XV [55-78] 21d; XVI [64-78] 23a-b; XXXII [70]-XXXIV [90] 48c-50c passim; PURGATORY, VI [58-151] 61b-62c; XVIII [91-123] 79b-d; PARADISE, XV [97]-XVI [154] 129b-132a 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART II, 154b-155c; CONCLUSION, 279a-c 25 Montaigne: Essays, 48a-b; 381a-388c esp 381c-d; 390c-391c; 480b-482b; 486b-489b; 490c-491d 26 Shakespeare: Julius Caesar, ACT V, SC V [68-81] 596a,c 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 74b-c; 81d-82a; 94b-95b 31 Descartes: Discourse on Method, PART III, 48b-49a 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 73 446c-447a 33 Pascal: Pensées, 6 173a 35 Locke: Toleration, 15d / Human Understanding, BK I, CH II, SECT 5-6 105a-c 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, XXIIIa-d; BK III, 9b-12a; BK IV, 13b,d-15a; 15c-17b; BK V, 18d-19d; 21b-23a; 31b-c; BK VII, 44d-45c; BK VIII, 51a-53a; 55c-d 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 323a-328a,c; 360b,d [fn 1]; 366b-d / Political Economy, 369b-370a; 372a-377b / Social Contract, BK II, 402b-403a; BK III, 411a-c; 412a-b; BK IV, 428a-432b passim; 434b-435a 39 Smith: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 337d-338c; 340c-343d; 346c-347d 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 193c-194a; 630b,d-631a; 644b-645c 43 The Federalist: NUMBER 55, 174c-d 43 Mill: Representative Government, 329b-330a; 334b; 336c-337b; 342d-343c; 346c-350a 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 393a-c 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 268, 84c-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 171b-c; PART III, 272a-d; PART IV, 365b-c 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 314c-316a; 321b-c 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK VI, 244d-245d; 260a-262a; BK XIII, 537b-538a; BK XV, 634a-635a; EPILOGUE I, 668a-669c; EPILOGUE II, 686c-687a

7c. The aristocratic principle: virtue as a condition of citizenship or public office

6 Herodotus: History, BK III, 107d-108a 6 Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, BK VIII, 425a-c 7 Plato: Republic, BK III, 339b-341d; BK V, 369c-370a; BK VI, 373c-375b; BK VII, 390b-391b / Statesman, 605d-608d / Laws, BK XII, 796b-799a / Seventh Letter, 807a-b 9 Aristotle: Politics, BK II, CH 11 [1273a22-b4] 469d-470a; BK III, CH 4-5 473c-475d; CH 7, 476c-477a; CH 9 [1281a2-8] 478c-d; CH 10, 478d-479a esp [1281a29-34] 479a; CH 11 [1281b39-c15] 479b-c; CH 12-13 480c-483a; CH 15 [1286b7-14] 484b-485a; CH 16 [1287b12-14] 486a; CH 18 487a,c; BK IV, CH 7 493a-b; BK V, CH 7 [1307a5-15] 509a; CH 9 [1309a33-b13] 511c-d; BK VII, CH 9 [1328b22-1329a2] 533a-b 14 Plutarch: Lycurgus, 45c-d / Lysander, 365a-366a / Lysander-Sulla, 387d-388a 15 Tacitus: Annals, BK XI, 105d-107b 27 Shakespeare: Coriolanus 351a-392a,c esp ACT I, SC I [92-166] 352b-353a, ACT III, SC I [142-161] 370d-371a 35 Locke: Civil Government, CH VII, SECT 94 46a-c; CH VIII, SECT 105-112 48c-51b passim 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK II, 10c-11a; BK V, 23a-25a; BK VIII, 52c-53a 38 Rousseau: Social Contract, BK III, 411c-412c 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 61d-62a 43 The Federalist: NUMBER 68, 206b-c 43 Mill: Representative Government, 336c-338c; 363a-366a; 384a-387d 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 125c-d; 141a; 178b-c 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 291-295 97d-99a; ADDITIONS, 169 145d 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK VI, 244d-245d

7d. The virtues which constitute the good or successful ruler: the vices associated with the possession of power

Old Testament: Exodus, 18:21-26 / Deuteronomy, 1:13-18; 17:14-20 / Judges, 9:7-20 / I Samuel, 8:11-18; 15:22-23—(D) I Kings, 8:11-18; 15:22-23 / I Kings, 3:16-28—(D) III Kings, 3:16-28 / II Chronicles, 1:7-12—(D) II Paralipomenon, 1:7-12 / Psalms, 2; 72; 101—(D) Psalms, 2; 71; 100 / Proverbs, 14:35; 16:12-15; 17:7; 20:26,28; 25:2,5; 28:2,15-16; 29:2,4,14; 31:4-5 / Ecclesiastes, 10:5-7,16-17 / Isaiah, 3:14-15; 10:1-3; 11:1-5; 14:5-6; 16:5; 56:9-12—(D) Isaias, 3:14-15; 10:1-3; 11:1-5; 14:5-6; 16:5; 56:9-12 / Jeremiah, 23:1-6—(D) Jeremias, 23:1-6 / Ezekiel, 22:27; 45:9; 46:18—(D) Ezechiel, 22:27; 45:9; 46:18 Apocrypha: Wisdom of Solomon, 1:1; 6; 9—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 1:1; 6; 9 / Ecclesiasticus, 8:2; 10:1-3—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 8:2-3; 10:1-3 / I Maccabees, 14—(D) OT, I Machabees, 14 4 Homer: Iliad, BK IX [1-172] 57a-58d 5 Aeschylus: Persians 15a-26d esp [623-908] 21c-24d 5 Sophocles: Oedipus the King [863-910] 107b-c / Antigone 131a-142d esp [162-210] 132c-d, [633-765] 136c-137d 5 Euripides: Medea [115-130] 213b / Suppliants [286-358] 260d-261c / Iphigenia at Aulis [334-375] 427d-428b 5 Aristophanes: Knights 470a-487a,c / Lysistrata 583a-599a,c esp [486-586] 589a-590d / Ecclesiazusae 615a-628d esp [173-240] 617a-c 6 Herodotus: History, BK III, 107c-d; BK IX, 314a,c 6 Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 404a-d; BK III, 425a-c; 427a-c; BK VI, 513a-d 7 Plato: Gorgias, 285a-294d / Republic, BK I, 300b-306b; BK II-VII, 319c-401d / Timaeus, 442b-d / Statesman, 605d-608d / Laws, BK IV, 679c-682c; BK XII, 794a-799a,c / Seventh Letter, 804b-805a; 806d-807b 9 Aristotle: Politics, BK I, CH 13 [1259b33-1260a20] 454b-d; BK III, CH 9 [1271a1-9] 467d; BK III, CH 4 [1277a5-b29] 474a-475a; CH 7 [1279a33-b4] 476d; CH 13 481b-483a; CH 15 [1286b8-22] 484d-485a; CH 17 [1287b40]-CH 18 [1288b6] 486c-487a,c; BK V, CH 9 [1309a33-b13] 511c-d; CH 11 [1314a30-1315b11] 517a-518c; BK VII, CH 2-3 528a-530a; CH 14 [1332b12]-CH 15 [1334a8] 537b-539c 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK III, CH 7 182b-184a 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK I 253a-256d; BK III, SECT 5 261a; BK VI, SECT 30 276d-277a; BK VII, SECT 36 282b 14 Plutarch: Lycurgus, 45c; 47a-48c / Numa Pompilius 49a-61d esp 59c-60b / Pericles 121a-141a,c / Coriolanus 174b,d-193a,c esp 180d-181b / Alcibiades-Coriolanus 193a-195a,c / Aristides 262b,d-276a,c esp 263d-267a, 273d-275c / Marcus Cato 276b,d-290d esp 282a / Aristides-Marcus Cato 290b,d-292d / Pyrrhus 314b,d-332d esp 319b-321a / Lysander 354b,d-368a,c esp 357a-b, 362b-365a / Sulla, 384a-c / Lysander-Sulla, 387b,d-388c / Nicias, 423a-430d / Crassus-Nicias, 455d-456d / Agesilaus 480b,d-499a,c esp 482d-484a / Alexander 540b,d-576d / Caesar 577a-604d esp 598d-601b / Phocion 604b,d-619d esp 604b,d-605d / Cato the Younger 620a-648a,c esp 626d-627b, 637b-c / Agis, 648b,d-649b / Cleomenes, 661b-d / Caius and Tiberius Gracchus-Agis and Cleomenes 689b,d-691a,c / Demetrius 726a-747d esp 742c-743b / Dion 781b,d-802a,c esp 781b,d, 800a-c / Brutus-Dion 824b,d-826a,c 15 Tacitus: Annals, BK II, 41c-d; BK VI, 86a-b; 87b-c; 90d-91a; 100a-b; BK XI, 102d-103a / Histories, BK I, 193c-194a; 197a-b; 198b-c; 208b-c; BK II, 215c-d; 223a-b; 236d-237a; 238d-240b; BK III, 254d 18 Augustine: City of God, BK XIX, CH 19, 523b-d 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 92, A 1, REP 3 213c-214c; Q 105, A 1, REP 2-3 307d-309d 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, XII 16b-17d esp [103-112] 17c; XXVII [55-136] 40a-41b; PARADISE, XIII [94-108] 126b-c; XVIII [52]-XX [148] 134a-138b passim 22 Chaucer: Physician’s Tale 366a-371a 23 Machiavelli: Prince 1a-37d esp CH VII 12d-14c, CH XV-XIX 22b-30a 24 Rabelais: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 58a-60c 25 Montaigne: Essays, 314c-316a; 337b-c; 350d-354b; 386b-388c; 436c-438b; 452a-d 26 Shakespeare: Richard III 105a-148a,c / Merchant of Venice, ACT IV, SC I [184-197] 427c / 1 Henry IV, ACT I, SC II [218-240] 437c-d; ACT II, SC II [93-161] 453d-454c / 2 Henry IV, ACT IV, SC V 494b-496d / Henry V, ACT I, SC II 533a-d; ACT IV, SC I [103-301] 552d-554c / Julius Caesar, ACT I, SC II [10-34] 574c-d; ACT III, SC II 583c-586c 27 Shakespeare: Measure for Measure, ACT I, SC I 174a-175b; SC III 177b-d; ACT III, SC I [275-296] 192b / King Lear, ACT III, SC IV [26-36] 264c / Macbeth, ACT IV, SC III [1-139] 303b-304d / Coriolanus, ACT I, SC VI [162-229] 367d-368c; ACT III 369a-377a 29 Cervantes: Don Quixote, PART II, 332b-336a; 340b-343a; 360d-361d 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 1a-2c; 4c-6c; 20d-25c; 74d-75a; 94b-95b / New Atlantis, 205d-207b 32 Milton: To the Lord General Cromwell 69a-b / To Sir Henry Vane the Younger 69b 35 Locke: Civil Government, CH XIV, SECT 160-166 62d-64a 36 Swift: Gulliver’s Travels, PART I, 28b-29b 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK VI, 40a-b; BK XII, 93c-95b; BK XXI, 170a; BK XXVIII, 259b; BK XXIX, 262a 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 362a-d / Political Economy, 367a-377b passim / Social Contract, BK III, 412d-413a; 414b-d 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 30c-32b passim; 34a-39d; 61d-64c passim; 142b-c; 255b,d-257a passim; 284a-c; 338d-339c; 343c-344a,c; 430a-d; 448c-449d 41 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 39b-40a; 67d-68b; 103d-104c; 113c-114a; 168b-177c passim, esp 176c-d; 504c-505a; 577d-579a 43 The Federalist: NUMBER 3, 33d-34a; NUMBER 15, 65b-d; NUMBER 22, 83c-d; NUMBER 55, 174c-d; NUMBER 57, 176d-177a; NUMBER 75, 223c-d 43 Mill: Representative Government, 363a-366a; 368b-369a 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 120a-c; 178b-c 46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, PART II, 275d-276d; 281c-282d; PART IV, 360b-362a; 366b 48 Melville: Moby Dick, 106a-107b 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK I, 9c-10d; BK V, 216a-d; BK X, 465c-467a; BK XIV, 611a-c; EPILOGUE I, 645a-646c; EPILOGUE II, 680c-d

8. The religious aspects of virtue and vice

8a. The moral consequences of original sin

Old Testament: Genesis, 3:9-24; 6:5-13; 8:21 / Job, 15:14-16; 25:4-6 / Psalms, 14:1-3; 39:5-6,12; 51:2-5; 53:1-3—(D) Psalms, 13:1-3; 38:6-7,12; 50:4-7; 52:1-4 / Proverbs, 20:9 / Ecclesiastes, 7:20,27-29; 9:3—(D) Ecclesiastes, 7:21,28-30; 9:3 / Jeremiah, 17:9—(D) Jeremias, 17:9 Apocrypha: Wisdom of Solomon, 2:23-24—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 2:23-25 New Testament: John, 8:3-8 / Romans, 3:9-5:21 esp 5:12-21; 7; 8:20-21; 9:29 / I Corinthians, 15:21-22 / Galatians, 2:16; 3 esp 3:11, 3:22; 4:1-7; 5:19-21 / Ephesians, 2:1-5 / I John, 2:15-17 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK I, PAR 18 5c-d / City of God, BK XII, CH 21-22 357a-c; BK XIII, CH 1-15 360a-366d; BK XIII, CH 23-BK XIV, CH 5 372a-380b; BK XIV, CH 12-13 387a-388c; CH 15-27 388d-397a; BK XXI, CH 12 571a-c; CH 15 572c-573b; BK XXII, CH 22-23 606d-609a; CH 30, 617c-618a 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 97, A 1, REP 3 513c-514c; Q 98, A 2 517d-519a; PART II-II, Q 17, A 9, REP 3 692d-693d 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, QQ 81-83 162d-174b; Q 85 178b-184a; Q 91, A 6, 212c-213c; Q 94, A 6, REP 1-2 225d-226b; Q 109, A 2, ANS 339c-340b; A 3, ANS 340c-341b; A 8, ANS 344d-346a; PART III, Q 8, A 5, REP 1 760a-d; QQ 14-15 784a-796a 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, IV [13-45] 5c-d; PURGATORY, VI [16-45] 56a-b; X [121-129] 68c-d; XXVIII [91]-XXIX [36] 97a-98a; XXX-XXXI 99b-102b; PARADISE, VII 115a-116c 22 Chaucer: Tale of Man of Law [4778-4791] 240b-241a / Pardoner’s Tale 374a-382b esp [12,432-445] 375a, [12,829-837] 381b / Parson’s Tale, PAR 13 504b-505a; PAR 18-19, 507b-508a 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART II, 112a-b; PART III, 191b-c; 192a-c; 195d 24 Rabelais: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK II, 81a-b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 213a-215b; 218c-219a; 233a-234a; 238b-239c; 250a-b; 294a-b 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 52, 195c-d 32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK III [167-216] 139a-140a; [274-303] 141b-142a; BK IV [505-535] 163b-164a; BK IX [780-1189] 264b-273a; BK X, 274a-298b esp [103-123] 276b-277a, [229-409] 279b-283a, [585-640] 287a-288b, [720-834] 290a-292b; BK XI [84-98] 301a; [162-180] 302b-303a; [251-262] 304b-305a; BK XI [423]-BK XII [371] 308b-327a 33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 82a / Pensées, 426-427 244b; 430-431 245a-247b; 434-435 248a-251a; 439-450 251a-253a; 560 272b 37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 38d 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 183b-c 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 482a 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 14 118c-d / Philosophy of History, PART III, 304d-305b; PART IV, 354a-c 50 Marx: Capital, 354b 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK VII, 275a

8b. The influence of religion on moral character: the indispensability of divine grace for the acquisition of natural virtue by fallen man

Old Testament: Proverbs, 21:3 / Isaiah, 1:16-20; 58:3-7—(D) Isaias, 1:16-20; 58:3-7 / Amos, 5:21-24 Apocrypha: Wisdom of Solomon, 9:6; 14:22-27—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 9:6; 14:22-27 / Ecclesiasticus, 15:1; 35:3—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 15:1; 35:5 New Testament: Matthew, 3:8; 7:16-27; 22:36-40; 23:1-33 / Mark, 7:7-13 / Luke, 3:8; 6:46-49; 11:37-44; 12:33 / John, 14:21; 15:10 / Acts, 26:20 / Romans, 2:17-29; 3:9-8:39 passim / II Corinthians, 12:7-9 / Galatians, 5:3-4,16-26 / Ephesians, 2:1-9; 4:1-25; 4:19-5:21; 6:10-17 / Colossians, 1:9-11 / II Timothy, 3:16-17 / Titus, 2-3 / Hebrews, 10:23-27; 13:20-21 / James, 1:22-27; 2:14-26; 4:1-10 / I Peter, 1:13-16; 4:1-6; 5:10 / II Peter, 1:2-10 / I John, 2:3-6; 3:23-24 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK II, PAR 15 12b-c / City of God, BK IV, CH 3 190a-c; BK V, CH 19-20 224b-226a; BK X, CH 3, 300c; BK XIII, CH 5 362b-c; BK XIX, CH 4 511a-513c; CH 21 524a-525a; CH 25 528c-d; BK XXI, CH 15-16 572c-574a / Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 39 635d-636a 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 109 338a-347d; PART III, Q 61 855a-858b; Q 65, A 1 879c-881d 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, I-II 1a-4a; IV [13-66] 5c-6a; PURGATORY, I 53a-54c; VII [1-36] 62c-d; IX 65d-67b; XI [1-30] 68d-69a; XXX-XXXI 99b-102b; PARADISE, VII [19-120] 115b-116b 22 Chaucer: Prologue [118-269] 161a-163b; [477-528] 167b-168a / Parson’s Prologue 493b-495a / Parson’s Tale 495a-550a esp PAR 1-15 495a-506b 25 Montaigne: Essays, 209c-212a; 294a-b 32 Milton: Sonnets, XIV 66a / Paradise Lost, BK II [1030-1033] 133b; BK III [56-415] 136b-144b esp [130-134] 138a, [167-184] 139a-b, [227-238] 140b; BK XI [1-21] 299a-b; [251-262] 304b-305a; [355-364] 307a; BK XII [576-605] 331b-332a / Samson Agonistes [652-666] 353b-354a 33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 29b / Pensées, 425-427 243b-244b; 550 267a-b; 579 276a; 668 294b-295a 35 Locke: Toleration, 1b-c / Human Understanding, BK I, CH II, SECT 5-6 105a-c 35 Hume: Human Understanding, SECT XI, DIV 114, 503a 36 Sterne: Tristram Shandy, 255a-268a esp 257a-268a 37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 38d 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK XXIV 200a-208a,c 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 366c-d 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 191a-194a esp 191a-d; 291d-292d; 297c-298b; 303a-d; 631d-632a 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 238a-b / Practical Reason, 327c-d / Judgement, 595d-596c 43 Mill: Liberty, 290a-291d; 296b-d / Utilitarianism, 458a-b 44 Boswell: Life of Johnson, 84d-85a; 151b-c; 256d; 295b; 482a-d 46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, PART II, 228d-229b; PART III, 312d-313a; PART IV, 346a-c; 349c-d; 353c-354c 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 593b 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK VIII, 271c-274a,c; BK XI, 524c-527a; BK XII, 560a-562d; BK XIV, 606a-607a 52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 28d-32a; 33c-34b; BK IV, 83a-88a passim; BK V, 127b-137c; BK VI 146b,d-170d passim; BK XI, 310d-317b passim; 335c-336b; 337a-346a passim 53 James: Psychology, 203a-204b

8c. The divine reward of virtue and punishment of vice: here and hereafter

Old Testament: Genesis, 6-8; 18:20-19:25 / Exodus, 22:22-24 / Leviticus, 18:24-30 / II Samuel, 22 esp 22:21-25—(D) II Kings, 22 esp 22:21-25 / I Kings, 21:19-24—(D) III Kings, 21:19-24 / II Kings, 9:7-10,30-37—(D) IV Kings, 9:7-10,30-37 / II Chronicles, 6:23,30—(D) II Paralipomenon, 6:23,30 / Ezra, 9:13—(D) I Esdras, 9:13 / Job esp 5, 8, 15:20-35, 18:1-21, 20:1-22:30, 24:1-25, 27:1-23, 33:1-34:37, 36:1-33 / Psalms, 1; 7:8-17; 9; 11-12; 15; 18; 21; 34; 37; 58; 73; 84:11; 89:23-33; 94; 107:10-20; 112; 125; 140—(D) Psalms, 1; 7:9-18; 9:1-21; 10-11; 14; 17; 20; 33; 36; 57; 72; 83:12-13; 88:24-34; 93; 106:10-20; 111; 124; 139 / Proverbs, 1:29-31; 2:7,21-22; 3:9-10,31-35; 4:18-19; 5:21-23; 10:2-6,24-30; 11; 12:7,28; 13:9,21,25; 14:11-12,19,32; 15:29; 16:17; 17:5,13; 19:16; 21:12-13,15-16,18,21,28; 22:8-9,22-23; 24:12,16,19-20; 25:21-22 / Ecclesiastes, 2:26; 3:16-17; 8:5,12-14; 9:1-2; 12:14 / Isaiah, 1:4-24; 2:10-4:1; 5; 9:13-10:6; 13:11; 14:4-6; 28; 32; 33:15-16; 47; 48:22; 58:3-12; 59; 65:6-7; 66:24—(D) Isaias, 1:4-24; 2:10-4:1; 5; 9:13-10:6; 13:11; 14:4-6; 28; 32; 33:15-16; 47; 48:22; 58:3-12; 59; 65:6-7; 66:24 / Jeremiah, 4:13-22; 5:7-9,25-29; 7:1-16; 9:1-9; 18:1-12; 21:14; 22:3-5,13-19; 23:9-20; 25:12-14; 31:30—(D) Jeremias, 4:13-22; 5:7-9,25-29; 7:1-16; 9:1-9; 18:1-12; 21:14; 22:3-5,13-19; 23:9-20; 25:12-14; 31:30 / Lamentations / Ezekiel, 3:17-21; 16; 18; 22-25; 28:1-19; 33:7-19—(D) Ezechiel, 3:17-21; 16; 18; 22-25; 28:1-19; 33:7-19 / Daniel, 4:4-5:31—(D) Daniel, 4-5 / Hosea esp 4, 7, 10:12-13—(D) Osee esp 4, 7, 10:12-13 / Joel / Amos esp 1-2, 4:1-3, 5:11-20, 8:1-14 / Jonah—(D) Jonas / Micah esp 3, 6:10-7:7—(D) Micheas esp 3, 6:10-7:7 / Nahum passim, esp 3 / Habakkuk, 2:4-17—(D) Habacuc, 2:4-17 / Ze