Chapter 99: WEALTH

INTRODUCTION

IF the only questions about wealth concerned the means of getting and keeping it, the causes of its increase and decrease, the idea of wealth would be confined to economics. “The end of the medical art is health,” writes Aristotle in the Ethics, and “that of economics, wealth.” But as the Ethics indicates, the moralist and the statesman are also concerned with health and wealth—not simply as things to get and keep, but in relation to all other goods and as constituents of the good life and the good society. What is regarded as the end in economics may be only a means in ethics and politics; in which case, Aristotle suggests, the latter sciences subordinate economics, even as politics subordinates military strategy, and military strategy the making and use of armaments.

The discussion of riches in the tradition of the great books exhibits these two ways of considering wealth. The Bible, the poets, historians, and philosophers deal with wealth as a factor in the life of men and societies. They scrutinize the desire for wealth or the love of money in relation to sin and virtue. They raise questions of justice concerning the distribution of wealth, the rights of property, and fairness in exchange—in buying and selling, borrowing and lending, and in compensating the laborer. They describe the effect of poverty and prosperity or opulence upon states, and prescribe the attitude which individual men as well as societies should take toward wealth and poverty.

Throughout it seems to be assumed that wealth is merely a means, however important or indispensable. Though wealth may also be viewed as an end when the problem is one of how to acquire, produce, or increase it, the fact that, when possessed, it should be treated as a means, leads the moralist to condemn not only the miser, the hoarder, or the man who devotes his whole life to making money, but also those who elevate wealth into the sort of end which justifies any means that can advance its pursuit.

The other approach is that of the economist. Two of the great books—Smith’s Wealth of Nations and Marx’s Capital—deal not with wealth as a means, but with the means to wealth. A third, though by title A Discourse on Political Economy, is concerned with the principles of government, and with wealth only insofar as, in Rousseau’s conception, government includes “the administration of property” as well as the protection of persons. “Provision for the public wants,” he writes, is “the third essential duty of government.”

Rousseau explains the title of his treatise by reference to the etymology of the word “economy,” which “meant originally only the wise and legitimate government of the household for the common good of the whole family.” It is in this sense that Aristotle employs the word and that a work sometimes attributed to him bears it as the title. “The meaning of the term,” Rousseau goes on, “was then extended to the government of that great family, the State. To distinguish these two senses of the word, the latter is called general or political economy, the former domestic or particular economy.”

Adam Smith uses the term more narrowly. Not only does he limit his inquiry to the nature and causes of wealth, but by specifying “the wealth of nations,” he restricts himself to political economy which, he says, has “two distinct objects: first, to provide a plentiful revenue or subsistence for the people, or more properly to enable them to provide such a revenue or subsistence for themselves; and secondly, to supply the state or commonwealth with a revenue sufficient for the public services.” In saying that the political economist aims “to enrich both the people and the sovereign,” and that “the great object of the political economy of every country is to increase the riches and power of that country,” Smith takes wealth as an end (though it may also be a means, “so far as power depends upon riches”) and tries to formulate the natural laws of wealth-making.

Nowhere does he define the quantity of wealth which should satisfy a nation. The natural resources of a country, the size and industry of its population, and various unfavorable contingencies, may set certain bounds to the maximization of wealth. Within these bounds the country which adopts and follows a sound system of political economy—one which accords with the right conception of wealth and its causes—can (and deserves to) become as wealthy as possible.

Yet Smith, in treating wealth as an end and its increase without limit as a good, does not make economics absolutely autonomous. He regards political economy as a part of politics—“a branch of the science of a statesman or legislator”—and to that extent implies that other considerations than wealth may control the policies of a nation in its regulation of agriculture, industry, domestic commerce, and foreign trade.

Furthermore, the larger moral questions which accompany Smith’s economic speculations in his Lectures on Jurisprudence and his earlier treatise Of the Moral Sentiments are not entirely absent from the Wealth of Nations. But to the extent that he writes purely as an economist concerned with securing “cheapness or plenty” or, what for him is the same, “wealth and abundance,” he adheres to considerations of expediency and only infrequently permits himself obiter dicta on justice or questions of right and wrong.

Karl Marx also writes as an economist. He details the factors which govern the production and distribution of wealth as these manifest themselves in the great historic systems of production—the slave economy, the feudal economy, and the bourgeois or capitalist economy. So far he is a scientist and, even more than Adam Smith, an historian who describes how wealth is acquired and how it multiplies by reproducing itself. But Marx is much less content than Smith to stop there. Smith tries to describe the economic process scientifically in order to prescribe the means a nation should use to become increasingly prosperous, but Marx undertakes to describe it in order to criticize the way in which some men get richer than they need be while others become poorer than they should be.

His critical purpose makes inevitable the expression of moral judgments concerning such inequities; and by implication they are everywhere present. For example, a descriptive phrase like “surplus value” connotes “unearned increment”; an apparently neutral economic term like “profit” is given the invidious moral significance traditionally attached to “usury.” Nor does Marx rest with criticism. He has an economic program to propose, a program he reveals more clearly in the Communist Manifesto than in Capital. The aim is not primarily to increase the production of wealth, but to remedy its inequitable distribution under all past economic systems. This program looks forward to the final revolution which will bring the necessary historic motion of progress to its culmination when socialism replaces capitalism.

SMITH AND MARX, IT APPEARS, are not economists in the same sense. But it may be supposed that, in spite of their different purposes, they would as scientists agree in their description of economic phenomena. To some extent they do, yet the difference in their point of view and aim leads to a quarrel about facts, or at least about their interpretation.

Classical economists in the tradition of Adam Smith dispute the consequences which Marx draws from the labor theory of value, especially with regard to the origin of profit from the surplus product of unpaid labor time. Profit seems to them as much a part of the natural price of commodities as the wages paid to labor and the rent paid to the landlord.

In exchanging the complete manufacture either for money, for labor, or for other goods, over and above what may be sufficient to pay the price of the materials, and the wages of the workmen, something,” writes Smith, “must be given for the profits of the undertaker of the work who hazards his stock in this adventure. The value which the workmen add to the materials, therefore, resolves itself in this case into two parts, of which the one pays their wages, the other the profits of their employer upon the whole stock of materials and wages which he advanced. He could have no interest to employ them, unless he expected from the sale of their work something more than what was sufficient to replace his stock to him; and he could have no interest to employ a great stock rather than a small one, unless his profits were to bear some proportion to the extent of his stock.

It is precisely on this point of profit as a return for risking one’s capital stock that Marx charges Smith, and after him, Ricardo and J. S. Mill, with being apologists for the capitalistic system. He quotes Mill’s statement that “the cause of profit is that labor produces more than is required for its support.” The fact that Mill does not question the validity of this surplus value, which accrues as profit to the entrepreneur; the fact that Ricardo treats surplus value, according to Marx, “as a thing inherent in the capitalist mode of production, which mode, in his eyes, is the natural form of social production,” is explicable, in Marx’s view, only if we recognize that their economic theories mix special pleading with science. “These bourgeois economists instinctively saw, and rightly so,” he says, “that it is very dangerous to stir too deeply the burning question of the origin of surplus value.”

Though he distinguishes between its classical and vulgar forms, political economy for Marx is a bourgeois science, which “first sprang into being during the period of manufacture.” Political economy “has generally been content to take, just as they were, the terms of commercial and industrial life,” Engels remarks in a prefatory note to Capital, and so it “never went beyond the received notions of profit and rent, never examined this unpaid part of the product (called by Marx surplus-product) in its integrity as a whole, and therefore never arrived at a clear comprehension, either of its origin and nature, or of the laws that regulate the subsequent distribution of its value.”

Marx’s work is, in his own conception of it, at one and the same time a criticism of the capitalist economy and of the science of economics which accepts and defends that economic system. In his own preface to Capital, Marx tells the reader that the “volume which I now submit to the public forms the continuation” of an earlier work—A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. Within the sphere of political economy as defined by the problem of augmenting a nation’s wealth, the author of the Wealth of Nations similarly finds a critique of prevalent economic fallacies—those of the physiocrats and the mercantilists—inseparable from the constructive statement of his own theory.

ECONOMISTS ENGAGE IN controversy over technical points in the analysis of production, exchange, and distribution, or in the development of theories of value and price, money and capital, property and poverty. Such controversy tends to become complicated both by the larger questions in which the economic issues are imbedded, and also by the different points of departure and the different objectives of the economists. What at first may look like a simple issue of fact often fails on closer examination to be capable of resolution by scientific inquiry, or simply by an accurate description of the phenomena.

Even when all relevant matters of fact are determined, conflicting interpretations of their significance remain. Behind these lie divergent presuppositions, often unexpressed. Those who start with different conceptions of the problem, and from different principles assumed rather than argued, tend to reach conclusions which may appear to be opposed but which do not really exclude one another—at least not totally. Each from its own point of view may be true, and from that point of view the other is not so much false as irrelevant.

Smith may be right, for example, when he says that “the consideration of his own private profit is the sole motive which determines the owner of any capital to employ it either in agriculture, in manufactures, or in some particular branch of the wholesale or retail trade. The different quantities of productive labor which it may put into motion, and the different values which it may add to the annual produce of the land and labor of the society, according as it is employed in one or other of those different ways, never enter his thoughts.” Smith may be right, not only as to the fact asserted, but also with regard to its implication for the increase of the nation’s wealth: that the wealth of a society increases as owners of capital act from self-interest in a system of free enterprise which permits the possibility of profits to indemnify them against the risk of losses and to reward them for the thrift whereby they accumulated capital to invest productively.

But Marx may also be right when he says that the system of free enterprise and capitalistic production could not have started simply through the thrift of individuals, but required a primitive accumulation of capital. “The accumulation of capital,” he says, “presupposes surplus-value; surplus-value presupposes capitalistic production; capitalistic production presupposes the existence of considerable masses of capital and labor-power in the hands of producers of commodities. The whole movement, therefore, seems to turn in a vicious circle, out of which we can only get by supposing a primitive accumulation (previous accumulation of Adam Smith) preceding capitalistic accumulation,” a primitive accumulation which is “nothing else than the historical process of divorcing the producer from the means of production.” He may be right, furthermore, when he goes on to say that “the economic structure of capitalistic society has grown out of the economic structure of feudal society. … The historical movement which changes the producers into wage-workers appears, on the one hand, as their emancipation from serfdom and from the fetters of the guilds … but, on the other hand, these new freedmen became sellers of themselves only after they had been robbed of all their own means of production, and of all the guarantees of existence afforded by the old feudal arrangements.”

It may be true that a capitalist who privately owns means of production would not invest them without the possibility of gaining a profit. It may be true, as Smith would insist, that he would not be justified in doing so. This, however, does not invalidate—as it is not invalidated by—Marx’s theory of the “original expropriation” which, in his opinion, initiated capitalistic enterprise; nor does it conflict with Marx’s insistence that the capitalist must exploit labor in order to make profits, since he can derive them only from the surplus value created by wage-laborers who produce more than is returned to them for their own needs or subsistence.

THE FOREGOING POINT AND counter-point in economic theory must serve as one example of the way in which Smith and Marx pass each other, rather than meet, on many of the basic economic issues. It would be impossible, within the compass of this Introduction, to chart the intricate relationship of their thought, including their agreements and clear oppositions as well as the matters on which they simply diverge because they are discussing the same problem from different viewpoints. The reader can discover for himself in greater detail the pattern of conversation between these two great economists by studying the passages from their works which are cited in the References.

As a glance at the Outline of Topics will show, many of the headings represent technical problems or issues in economic theory, as that is narrowly conceived in modern times. Some, however, are more general. They state themes which place the discussion of wealth in the larger context of moral and political questions and which, throughout the whole tradition, engage poets, historians, and philosophers—not merely the economists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

To some extent the more general themes are treated in other chapters, such as LABOR, JUSTICE, OLIGARCHY, VIRTUE AND HAPPINESS, FAMILY and STATE. Here we shall consider them for their bearing on the nature and kinds, the sources and uses, of wealth, and also its goodness and evil.

THE ANCIENTS CONCEIVE WEALTH as consisting in the variety of external goods which sustain life—food, clothing, and shelter. But wealth may include more than the bare necessities. When Socrates in the Republic outlines a simple economy which aims to satisfy only basic needs, Glaucon tells him that he is “providing for a city of pigs.” More is required, he says, for “the ordinary conveniences of life. People who are to be comfortable are accustomed to lie on sofas, and dine off tables, and they should have sauces and sweets in the modern style.” Socrates replies by projecting “a luxurious State”—“a State at fever heat”—which goes beyond the necessaries, “such as houses and clothes and shoes. The arts of the painter and the embroiderer,” he says, “will have to be set in motion, and gold and ivory and all sorts of materials procured”; and the city will “have to fill and swell with a multitude of callings which are not required by any natural want.”

This distinction between necessities and luxuries, which has many implications for ethics and economics as well as for politics, does not draw the line between natural and artificial wealth. Nor is natural wealth identified exclusively with natural resources in their pure state, unconverted by labor for use or consumption. Wealth is generally thought to comprise all consumable goods, whether necessities or luxuries, whether products of hunting, agriculture, or manufacture, and all the means of producing them. Only money is excluded. Only money is declared to be either not wealth at all or artificial wealth.

Yet the confusion of money with wealth seems to be prevalent at all times, as repeated attempts to correct the fallacy indicate. The use of money originates, according to Aristotle, with retail trade, which is “not a natural part of the art of getting wealth”; for, he goes on, “had it been so, men would have ceased to exchange when they had enough.” What Aristotle calls retail trade replaces “the barter of necessary articles.” Made possible by the use of coin, retail trade, he says, comes to be thought of as “the art which produces riches and wealth.”

“Indeed,” Aristotle continues, “riches is assumed by many to be only a quantity of coin.” But he agrees with those who maintain, to the contrary, that “coined money is a mere sham, a thing not natural, but conventional only… because it is not useful as a means to any of the necessities of life, and he who is rich in coin may often be in want of necessary food. But how can that be wealth of which a man may have a great abundance and yet perish with hunger, like Midas in the fable, whose insatiable prayer turned everything that was set before him into gold?”

To say that money in itself cannot satisfy any natural need does not imply that it serves no economic purpose. Plato and Aristotle, Hobbes, Locke, and Kant, as well as Smith and Marx, understand the utility of money as a medium of exchange, indispensable for “the circulation of commodities”—to use Marx’s phrase—beyond the stage of barter. Money is not only a medium of exchange, according to Plato; it “reduces the inequalities and incommensurabilities of goods to equality and common measure”; and Aristotle seems to anticipate Marx’s conception of money as the universal form in which all economic values can be expressed when he defines “wealth” to mean “all things whose value is measured by money.”

The economic utility of money in exchange and as a measure of value, or even the fact that gold and silver coin may have some intrinsic value because of the labor involved in mining and minting the metals, does not alter the distinction between natural and artificial wealth. “Natural wealth,” Aquinas explains, “is that which serves man as a remedy for his natural wants, such as food, drink, clothing, cars, dwellings, and such like; while artificial wealth, such as money, is that which is not a direct help to nature, but is invented by man for the convenience of exchange and as a measure of all things saleable.”

The same point is restated by Locke in the seventeenth century, but it is still necessary for Smith a century later to argue against the mercantilist theory of national prosperity, on the ground that it confuses wealth with money. “It would be too ridiculous to go about seriously to prove,” Smith writes, “that wealth does not consist in money, or in gold or silver; but what money purchases, and is valuable only for purchasing. … Goods can serve many other purposes besides purchasing money, but money can serve no other purpose besides purchasing goods. Money, therefore, necessarily runs after goods, but goods do not always or necessarily run after money. The man who buys, does not always mean to sell again, but frequently to use or consume; whereas he who sells, always means to buy again.”

Nevertheless, that “wealth consists in money, or in gold and silver, is a popular notion which naturally arises from the double function of money, as the instrument of commerce, and as the measure of value.” The notion is so familiar that, Smith observes, “even they, who are convinced of its absurdity, are very apt to forget their own principles, and in the course of their reasonings to take it for granted as a certain and undeniable truth. Some of the best English writers on commerce set out with observing that the wealth of a country consists, not in its gold and silver only, but in its lands, houses, and consumable goods of all different kinds. In the course of their reasonings, however, the land, houses, and consumable goods seem to slip out of their memory, and the strain of their argument frequently supposes that all wealth consists in gold and silver, and to multiply these metals is the great object of national industry and commerce.”

The two principles of the mercantilist policy are, according to Smith, that “wealth consisted in gold and silver, and that those metals could be brought into a country which had no mines only by the balance of trade, or by exporting to a greater value than it imported.” A favorable balance of trade thus necessarily became the sole object of the mercantilists; and, Smith adds, “its two great engines for enriching the country, therefore, were restraints upon importation, and encouragements to exportation.”

Since in his opinion the wealth of a nation consists in “the whole annual produce of its land and labor,” Smith opposes all such restraints, and with them the protection of monopolies. He advocates free trade and the free competition of producers, within a country as well as between domestic and foreign producers, on the ground that “consumption is the sole end and purpose of all production; and the interest of the producer ought to be attended to, only so far as it may be necessary for promoting that of the consumer. But in the mercantile system,” Smith claims, “the interest of the consumer is almost constantly sacrificed to that of the producer.” A laissez-faire economy, he thinks, not only reverses this situation, but also, by preferring more consumable commodities to more gold and silver, tends to increase the real, not the artificial wealth of a nation.

Marx also criticizes the mercantilist error, but in terms of his theory that “since the production of surplus-value is the chief end and aim of capitalist production … the greatness of a man’s or a nation’s wealth should be measured, not by the absolute quantity produced, but by the relative magnitude of the surplus-value.”

Surplus value cannot be produced by exchange. Against the mercantilists who “derived the excess of the price over the cost of production of the product, from the act of exchange, from the product being sold above its value,” Marx quotes Mill’s statement that “profit arises, not from the incident of exchange, but from the productive power of labor; and the general profit of the country is always what the productive power of labor makes it, whether any exchange takes place or not.”

But this is not the whole picture, according to Marx. Although it is impossible for capital or surplus value “to be produced by circulation,” or the exchange of commodities, he also thinks it is “impossible that outside the sphere of circulation, a producer of commodities can, without coming into contact with other commodity owners, expand value, and consequently convert money or commodities into capital.” The two sides of the picture are brought together, in Marx’s view, by the treatment of labor itself as a commodity, and the buying and selling of labor power in the open market.

THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN REAL wealth and money and the distinction between necessities and luxuries have more than economic significance. They are basic to the moralist’s strictures concerning the desire for wealth, its place in the order of goods, and the way it can be put to good use.

It is not only St. Paul who says that “the love of money is the root of all evil.” It is not only Christian theologians like Augustine and Aquinas who explain how “lust of the eyes” or covetousness is a capital sin and as such the principle of many other transgressions. As Marx points out, the Greeks also “denounced money as subversive of the economical and moral order of things.” In the passage in Sophocles’ Antigone which he quotes, Creon declares: “Nothing so evil as money ever grew to be current among men. This lays cities low, this drives men from their homes, this trains and warps honest souls till they set themselves to works of shame; this still teaches folk to practice villainies, and to know every godless deed.”

Plato condemns the oligarchical state by comparing it to the miser and money-maker among men. “Such a State,” he says, “aims to become as rich as possible, a desire which is insatiable.” In the Laws, the Athenian Stranger explains why the reasonable statesman should not aim to make “the state for the true interests of which he is advising … as great and as rich as possible,” if he also “desires to have the city the best and happiest possible”; for though each may be possible alone, they are not possible together. It is impossible, he holds, to be “good in a high degree and rich in a high degree at the same time.”

What Plato says of the oligarch, Marx says of the capitalist: “He shares with the miser the passion for wealth as wealth.” But, Marx adds, “that which in the miser is a mere idiosyncrasy is, in the capitalist, the effect of the social mechanism, of which he is but one of the wheels.” Involved as he is by the system in “the restless never-ending process of profit-making,” the individual capitalist, like the miser, exhibits “this boundless greed after riches, this passionate chase after exchange-value.”

The root of the evil in the love of money—of “gold, yellow, glittering, precious gold,” which Shakespeare calls the “common whore of mankind”—is the boundlessness of the lust. The hoarding of anything springs from an insatiable desire, but because money can be converted into every sort of commodity, it is, according to Marx, the ideal object of hoarding. “The antagonism between the quantitative limits of money and its qualitative boundlessness,” he writes, “continually acts as a spur to the hoarder in his Sisyphus-like labor of accumulating.”

In the light of such observations, Marx cites with approval Aristotle’s distinction between “economic” and “chrematistic” or what Aristotle differentiates as the two arts of wealth-getting. Considering economics as the management of a household, Aristotle says that the art of acquisition which is a natural part of it “must either find ready to hand, or itself provide, such things necessary to life, and useful for the community of the family or state, as can be stored. They are the elements of true riches; for the amount of property which is needed for a good life is not unlimited.” But “there is another variety of the art of acquisition which is commonly and rightly called an art of wealth-getting, and has in fact suggested that riches and property have no limit.”

The two arts tend to become confused in men’s minds. “Some persons are led to believe,” Aristotle observes, “that getting wealth is the object of household management, and the whole idea of their lives is that they ought either to increase their money without limit, or at any rate not to lose it. The origin of this disposition in men is that they are intent upon living only, and not upon living well; and as their desires are unlimited, they also desire that the means of gratifying them should be without limit.” Even “those who do aim at a good life seek the means of obtaining bodily pleasures; and, since the enjoyment of these appears to depend upon property, they are absorbed in getting wealth; and thus there arises the second kind of wealth-getting.”

Plato, like Aristotle, while admitting the service of retail trade in effecting the exchange of commodities, condemns the tendency of its practitioners to make “gains without limit.” In the Laws, furthermore, he prohibits interest on loans; and in the Republic, he describes this form of money-making as a process in which “men of business … insert their sting—that is, their money—into someone else who is not on his guard against them, and recover the parent sum many times over multiplied into a family of children.” This biological metaphor for making money out of money appears also in Aristotle. The term “interest,” he says, “means the birth of money from money.” Of all forms of money-making, this “breeding of money” is, in his opinion, the most unnatural. “Usury, which makes a gain out of money itself,” Aristotle writes, violates the natural object of money—“intended to be used in exchange, but not to increase at interest.”

INTEREST AND USURY are not distinguished in the Old Testament. “Take thou no usury of him, or increase,” is the command in Leviticus. But this rule does not apply to the stranger. “Unto a stranger thou mayst lend upon usury,” Deuteronomy says, “but unto thy brother thou shalt not lend upon usury.”

A theologian like Aquinas, following both Scripture and Aristotle, condemns, for Christians, all interest as usury; and Luther also appeals to pagan precept as well as to Scriptural warrant. “The heathen were able, by the light of reason, to conclude that a usurer is a double-dyed thief and murderer,” Luther says in a passage which Marx quotes under the comment that the usurer is “that old-fashioned but ever renewed specimen of the capitalist.” Castigating his fellow-Christians for holding usurers “in such honor that we fairly worship them for the sake of their money,” Luther declares that “whoever eats up, robs, and steals the nourishment of another, that man commits as great a murder (so far as in him lies) as he who starves a man or utterly undoes him. Such does a usurer.”

It seems to be a later consequence of the Protestant reformation, as Weber and Tawney point out, that the exaction of interest for the loan of money or goods is defended, and only exorbitant rates of interest are denounced as usurious. The signs of the change may be seen in Pascal’s diatribe against the specious casuistry which tries to exempt some forms of interest-taking from the charge of usury; and also in the fact that Montesquieu attributes to the schoolmen, “who adopted from Aristotle, a great many notions on lending upon interest,” the mistake of condemning it “absolutely and in all cases.” In his own opinion, “to lend money without interest is certainly an action laudable and extremely good; but is is obvious that it is only a counsel of religion, and not a civil law.”

Montesquieu thinks a price for the use of money is necessary for the carrying on of trade. If a fair rate of interest is not allowed, nobody will lend money; or rather, Montesquieu says, because “the affairs of society will ever make it necessary,” moneylending will inevitably take the form of usury. “Usury increases in Mohammedan countries,” he points out, “in proportion to the severity of the prohibition. The lender indemnifies himself for the danger he undergoes of suffering the penalty.”

Smith agrees that prohibition, “instead of preventing, has been found from experience to increase the evil of usury.” A fair rate of interest is justified, he thinks, because “as something can everywhere be made by the use of money, something ought everywhere to be paid for the use of it. … In countries where interest is permitted, the law, in order to prevent the extortion of usury, generally fixes the highest rate which can be taken without incurring a penalty. This rate ought always to be somewhat above the lowest market price, or the price which is commonly paid for the use of money by those who can give the most undoubted security.” Smith offers the British practice as a good example. “Where money is lent to government at three per cent, and to private people upon good security at four, and four and a half, the present legal rate, five per cent, is perhaps as proper as any.”

Interest and profit, while not the same in Smith’s view, are closely connected. As the revenue from land is rent, from labor wages, and “that derived from stock, by the person who manages or employs it, is called profit,” interest is “the compensation which the borrower pays to the lender, for the profit which he has an opportunity of making by the use of the money. Part of that profit naturally belongs to the borrower, who runs the risk and takes the trouble of employing it; and part to the lender, who affords him an opportunity of making this profit.” Conceiving interest as a derivative revenue, Smith holds it to be a maxim that “wherever a great deal can be made by the use of money, a great deal will be commonly given for the use of it,” so that we may expect to find “the usual market rate of interest” to vary with “the ordinary profits of stock.”

THE THEORY WHICH PLACES wealth lowest in the order of goods determines its contribution to human happiness accordingly, and leads to a disapproval of luxuries, on the part of both the individual and society.

“Riches are for the sake of the body, as the body is for the sake of the soul. The latter are good,” writes Plato, “and wealth is intended by nature to be for the sake of them, and is therefore inferior to them both, and third in the order of excellence.” Aristotle similarly orders wealth, or external goods, to health and other goods of the body, as these in turn are subordinate to the virtues, or goods of the soul; and Hobbes, in somewhat different terms, holds that, of all goods, “those that are dearest to a man are his own life and limbs; and in the next degree (in most men), those that concern conjugal affection; and after them riches and means of living.”

While Aristotle admits that happiness requires some external prosperity, he always adds that only a moderate amount of external goods is needed. “Happiness, whether consisting in pleasure or virtue, or both,” he writes, “is more often found with those who are most highly cultivated in their mind and in their character, and have only a moderate share of external goods, than among those who possess external goods to a useless extent, but are deficient in higher qualities.” Aristotle praises Solon for telling Croesus, one of the world’s wealthiest men, that happiness requires more than riches. The conversation is narrated by Herodotus.

“What, stranger of Athens,” Herodotus reports Croesus as saying, “is my happiness, then, valued so little by you, that you do not even put me on a level with private men?” To which, Solon replies: “Croesus, I see that you are wonderfully rich, and the lord of many nations,” but “he who possesses a great store of riches is no nearer happiness than he who has what suffices for his daily needs, unless luck attends him, and so he continue in the enjoyment of all his good things to the end of his life.” Aristotle adds the further observation that “one can with but moderate possessions do what one ought” and that “a good life requires a supply of external goods in a less degree when men are in a good state and in a greater degree when they are in a lower state.”

Aquinas agrees with Aristotle so far as the happiness of the active life is concerned, but he holds that wealth “does not conduce to the happiness of the contemplative life; rather is it an obstacle thereto.” With regard to achieving “the happiness of heaven” in the life hereafter, Aquinas not only thinks wealth an obstacle, but he also explains why the religious orders take the vow of voluntary poverty. “Man is directed to future happiness by charity,” he writes; and “in the attainment of the perfection of charity the first foundation is voluntary poverty, whereby a man lives without property of his own.”

The opinion that wealth is an obstacle or that it should be sought in moderation does not seem to be universally shared. As Herodotus, Plato, and Aristotle report the prevalence in the ancient world of the notion that “external goods are the cause of happiness,” so Melville reflects that in modern society “the urbane activity with which a man receives money is really marvellous, considering that we so earnestly believe money to be the root of all earthly ills, and that on no account can a monied man enter heaven. Ah! how cheerfully we consign ourselves to perdition!” Marx quotes a still more extravagant claim. In a letter from Jamaica in 1503, Christopher Columbus exclaims: “Gold is a wonderful thing! Whoever possesses it is lord of all he wants. By means of gold one can even get souls into Paradise.”

Against Rousseau’s attack upon opulence as the cause of civilization with all its miseries, Dr. Johnson rises in the defense of luxuries and the advantages of wealth. “Rousseau’s treatise on the inequality of mankind,” Boswell writes, “was at this time a fashionable topic. It gave rise to an observation by Mr. Dempster that the advantages of fortune and rank were nothing to a wise man.” To this, Dr. Johnson replies: “If a man were a savage, living in the woods by himself, this might be true,” but “in civilized society, external advantages make us more respected. … Sir, you may make the experiment. Go into the street, and give one man a lecture on morality, and another a shilling, and see which will respect you the most…

“And, Sir,” he continues, “if six hundred pounds a year procure a man more consequence, and, of course, more happiness than six pounds, the same proportion will hold as to six thousand, and so on as far as opulence can be carried. Perhaps he who has a large fortune may not be so happy as he who has a small one; but that must proceed from other causes than from his having the large fortune; for, ceteris paribus, he who is rich in a civilized society, must be happier than he who is poor.”

On one occasion, Dr. Johnson seems to share Solon’s view. When Boswell suggests that the proprietor of a great estate “must be happy,” he exclaims: “Nay, Sir, all this excludes but one evil—poverty.” But for the most part, his opinion is that “it is in refinement and elegance that the civilized man differs from the savage,” and that it is right for every society to be as luxurious as it can be.

Many things which are false are transmitted from book to book,” he says to General Oglethorpe, “and gain credit in the world. One of these is the cry against the evil of luxury. Now the truth is that luxury produces much good. You will hear it said, very gravely, Why was not the half-guinea, thus spent in luxury, given to the poor? To how many might it have afforded a good meal. Alas! has it not gone to the industrious poor, whom it is better to support than the idle poor? You are much surer that you are doing good when you pay money to those who work as the recompense of their labor, than when you give money in charity. … And as to the rout that is made about people who are ruined by extravagance, it is no matter to the nation that some individuals suffer. When so much general productive exertion is the consequence of luxury, the nation does not care though there are debtors in gaol.

Dr. Johnson’s pronouncements may silence Mr. Dempster and General Oglethorpe, but not Smith or Marx. To Smith, spendthrift extravagance squanders wealth which might have been capitalized for productive purposes; to Marx, the multiplication of luxury products diverts labor power that is socially necessary for producing the means of subsistence into what Veblen later calls forms of “conspicuous waste.” Not only, in Marx’s view, can the capitalistic system be charged with indifference as to whether its profits are made out of the production of luxuries or necessities; but the workers on starvation wages engaged in the luxury trades constitute a signal indictment of the inequitable distribution of wealth.

AS THE NEEDS OF THE individual are thought to set a natural limit to his acquisition of wealth, or at least to provide him with a rational standard for stopping short of wanton luxuries when he seeks the decencies or amenities of life, so the needs of society as a whole are thought to establish a criterion of justice in the distribution of wealth.

“God gave the world to men in common,” says Locke, and “the measure of property nature has well set by the extent of man’s labor and the convenience of life. … No man’s labor could subdue or appropriate all; nor could his enjoyment consume more than a small part; so that it was impossible for any man, this way, to intrench upon the right of another, who would still have room for as good and as large a possession (after the other had taken out his) as before it was appropriated. Which measure did confine every man’s possession to a very moderate proportion, and such as he might appropriate to himself without injury to anybody, in the first age of the world.”

This rule of property—“that every man should have as much as he could make use of” without prejudice or injury to others—worked well in the beginning when, as Locke puts it, “all the world was America.” It “would still hold in the world without straitening anybody,” Locke thinks, “since there is land enough in the world to suffice double the inhabitants, had not the invention of money … introduced (by consent) larger possessions and a right to them”; for gold and silver being relatively imperishable, men can hoard excesses of them without appearing to waste them, as they would if they amassed perishable commodities which they could not consume or use.

It is not money but property itself which Rousseau claims to be the origin of inequality among men and of the inequitable distribution of wealth. “The first man who, having enclosed a piece of ground, bethought himself of saying This is mine, and found people simple enough to believe him, was the real founder of civil society.” Once established as a right, property tends to expand. The larger proprietors avoid the question, “Do you not know that numbers of your fellow-creatures are starving, for want of what you have too much of?” Instead, according to Rousseau, they conceive “the profoundest plan that ever entered the mind of man” to protect their possessions against invasion or plunder. They institute civil government, ostensibly for the security of all, but really to secure for themselves their property and power.

“Such was, or may well have been,” Rousseau writes, “the origin of society and law, which bound new fetters on the poor, and gave new powers to the rich; which irretrievably destroyed natural liberty, eternally fixed the law of property and inequality, converted clever usurpation into unalterable right, and, for the advantage of a few ambitious individuals, subjected all mankind to perpetual labor, slavery, and wretchedness.” Adam Smith seems to agree. “Where there is no property,” he says, “or at least none that exceeds the value of two or three days labor, civil government is not so necessary. … Civil government, so far as it is instituted for the security of property, is in reality for the defense of the rich against the poor, or of those who have some property against those who have none at all.”

But, unlike Smith, Rousseau has an alternative to propose. “Since it is plainly contrary to the law of nature … that the privileged few should gorge themselves with superfluities while the starving multitude are in want of the bare necessities of life,” he thinks it is “one of the most important functions of government to prevent extreme inequalities of fortunes; not by taking away wealth from its possessors, but by depriving all men of means to accumulate it; not by building asylums for the poor, but by securing the citizens from becoming poor.”

THIS STATES AN END, but not the means for achieving it. The problem of poverty is not so easily solved, if it can be solved at all, once the right of property is admitted. Rousseau, for example, no less than Locke and others before him, affirms this right which, for Kant and Hegel later, is almost the whole substance of private or abstract right. “The right of property,” says Rousseau, “is the most sacred of all the rights of citizenship, and even more important in some respects than liberty itself.” Yet it is difficult, he admits, “to secure the property of individuals on one side, without attacking it on another; and it is impossible that all the regulations which govern the order of succession, wills, contracts, etc., should not lay individuals under some constraint as to the disposition of their goods, and should not consequently restrict the right of property.”

To Hegel, poverty seems to be an inevitable consequence of property, as war is an inevitable consequence of sovereignty, and in neither case can the cause be abolished. “When the masses begin to decline into poverty,” as they must, they can be supported from public funds and private charities, thus receiving “subsistence directly, not by means of their work,” or as an alternative, “they might be given subsistence indirectly through being given work.” But, Hegel adds, “in this event the volume of production would be increased, but the evil consists precisely in an excess of production and in the lack of a proportionate number of consumers who are themselves also producers, and thus it is simply intensified by both of the methods by which it is sought to alleviate it.” Hence, Hegel concludes, it “becomes apparent that despite an excess of wealth civil society is not rich enough … to check excessive poverty and the creation of a penurious rabble. This inner dialectic of civil society thus drives it—or at any rate a specific civil society—to push beyond its own limits and seek markets, and … its necessary means of subsistence, in other lands which are either deficient in the goods it has over-produced, or else generally backward in industry.”

Imperialism, according to Marx, will not long work as a cure for what Tawney later calls “the sickness of an acquisitive society”—the inner frustration which Marx sees manifested in recurring economic crises and depressions of greater and greater magnitude. Nor does he propose the abolition of all private property as the remedy for poverty, when he calls for “the expropriation of the expropriators.” On the contrary, only the possession by each individual of an adequate supply of consumer goods can abolish poverty. Differentiating between individual and capitalist property, according as its owners are or are not laborers, and according as it consists in consumable goods or the means of production, Marx would transfer the latter from private property to public ownership.

The socialist economy he outlines also includes “abolition of property in land, and application of all rents of land to public purposes; a heavy progressive or graduated income tax; abolition of all right of inheritance.” It includes “centralization of credit in the hands of the state, by means of a national bank with State capital and an exclusive monopoly,” and also “centralization of the means of communication and transport.” Last but not least, it includes “equal liability of all to labor.”

More radical than Marx’s socialism is the communism Plato proposes in the Republic. Plato’s aim is not to solve the problem of poverty or economic injustice. By abolishing for his guardian class all private property, he hopes that his guardians through sharing common possessions (including wives and children) will have no cause for rivalry, dissension, or personal ambition. Common possessions should mould them into a fraternity and free them from private interests to work for the common good. In this matter of property, the condition of Plato’s imagined guardians was not so different from that of Jesus’ disciples as recounted in the Book of Acts, or of the monastic orders whose vows include that of voluntary poverty.

Aristotle’s criticisms of the arrangements for the guardian class in the Republic are largely directed against the community of women and children and the elimination of private property. “Property,” he says, “should be in a certain sense common, but as a general rule private; for, when everyone has a distinct interest, men will not complain of one another, and they will make more progress, because everyone will be attending to his own business.” He thinks “it is clearly better that property should be private, but the use of it common,” in the sense that its use have the common welfare in mind.

Not only does Aristotle defend private property on many counts, but he objects to schemes for equalizing it, such as Plato sets forth in the Laws. For one thing, “the legislator ought not only to aim at the equalization of properties, but at moderation in their amount.” Yet if the legislator “prescribe this moderate amount equally to all, he will be no nearer the mark; for it is not the possessions but the desires of mankind which need to be equalized, and this is impossible unless a sufficient education is provided by the laws.”

Whether or not communism is desirable, there are those who think it is impossible, not so much on the level of the economic, as on the level of the moral, revolution for which Aristotle looks to education. The skeptic thinks human nature cannot be so transformed. It may be only in the twentieth century that the world is divided into two camps on this subject, but the issue is as old as the western tradition. At its beginning Aristophanes expresses the skeptical position in a form that is still current. His Ecclesiazusae simply laughs at the idea that inequalities of property can ever be done away with—by law or by education.

OUTLINE OF TOPICS

1. The elements of wealth: the distinction between natural and artificial wealth; the distinction between the instruments of production and consumable goods
2. The acquisition and management of wealth in the domestic and tribal community
3. The production of wealth in the political community
   • 3a. Factors in productivity: natural resources, raw materials, labor, tools and machines, capital investments
   • 3b. The use of land: kinds of land or real estate; the general theory of rent
   • 3c. Agricultural production: the produce of land
   • 3d. Industrial production: domestic, guild, and factory systems of manufacturing
4. The exchange of wealth or the circulation of commodities: the processes of commerce or trade
   • 4a. The forms of value: the distinction between use-value and exchange-value
   • 4b. Types of exchange: barter economies and money economies
   • 4c. Rent, profit, wages, interest as the elements of price: the distinction between the real and the nominal price and between the natural and the market price of commodities
   • 4d. The source of value: the labor theory of value
   • 4e. Causes of the fluctuation of market price: supply and demand
   • 4f. The consequences of monopoly and competition
   • 4g. Commerce between states: tariffs and bounties; free trade
5. Money
   • 5a. The nature of money as a medium or instrument of exchange, and as a measure of equivalents in exchange
   • 5b. Monetary standards: the coining or minting of money; good and bad money
   • 5c. The price of money: the exchange rate of money as measured in terms of other commodities
   • 5d. The institution and function of banks: monetary loans, credit, the financing of capitalistic enterprise
   • 5e. The rate of interest on money: the condemnation of usury
6. Capital
   • 6a. Comparison of capitalist production with other systems of production: the social utility of capital
   • 6b. Theories of the nature, origin, and growth of capital stock: thrift, savings, excesses beyond the needs of consumption, expropriation
   • 6c. Types of capital: fixed and circulating, or constant and variable capital
   • 6d. Capital profits
     • (1) The distinction of profit from rent, interest, and wages
     • (2) The source of profit: marginal or surplus value; unearned increment and the exploitation of labor
     • (3) Factors determining the variable rate of capital profit
     • (4) The justification of profit: the reward of enterprise and indemnification for risk of losses
   • 6e. The recurrence of crises in the capitalist economy: depressions, unemployment, the diminishing rate of profit
7. Property
   • 7a. The right of property: the protection of property as the function of government
   • 7b. Kinds of economic property
     • (1) Chattel slaves as property
     • (2) Property in land
     • (3) Property in capital goods and in monetary wealth
   • 7c. The uses of property: for production, consumption, or exchange
   • 7d. The ownership of property: possession or title; the legal regulation of property
     • (1) Private ownership: partnerships, joint-stock companies
     • (2) Government ownership: eminent domain
   • 7e. The inheritance of property: laws regulating inheritance
8. The distribution of wealth: the problem of poverty
   • 8a. The sharing of wealth: goods and lands held in common; public ownership of the means of production
   • 8b. The division of common goods into private property: factors influencing the increase and decrease of private property
   • 8c. The causes of poverty: competition, incompetence, indigence, expropriation, unemployment; the poverty of the proletariat as dispossessed of the instruments of production
   • 8d. Laws concerning poverty: the poor laws, the dole
9. Political economy: the nature of the science of economics
   • 9a. Wealth as an element in the political common good
   • 9b. Factors determining the prosperity or opulence of states: fluctuations in national prosperity
   • 9c. Diverse economic programs for securing the wealth of nations: the physiocratic, the mercantilist, and the laissez-faire systems
   • 9d. Governmental regulation of production, trade, or other aspects of economic life
   • 9e. The economic support of government and the services of government
     • (1) The charges of government: the cost of maintaining its services; elements in the national budget
     • (2) Methods of defraying the expenses of government: taxation and other forms of levy or impost; confiscations, seizures, and other abuses of taxation
   • 9f. Wealth or property in relation to different forms of government
   • 9g. Wealth and poverty in relation to crime and to war between states
   • 9h. The struggle of economic classes for political power
10. The moral aspects of wealth and poverty
    • 10a. The nature of wealth as a good: its place in the order of goods and its relation to happiness
    • 10b. Natural limits to the acquisition of wealth by individuals: the distinction between necessities and luxuries
    • 10c. Temperance and intemperance with respect to wealth: liberality, magnificence, miserliness, avarice
    • 10d. The principles of justice with respect to wealth and property: fair wages and prices
    • 10e. The precepts of charity with respect to wealth
      • (1) Almsgiving to the needy and the impoverished
      • (2) The religious vow of poverty: voluntary poverty
      • (3) The choice between God and Mammon: the love of money as the root of all evil
11. Economic determinism: the economic interpretation of history
12. Economic progress: advances with respect to both efficiency and justice

REFERENCES

To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 Homer: Iliad, BK II [265-283], 12d, the number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the passage is in section d of page 12.

Page Sections: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 James: Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.

Author’s Divisions: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH, SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in certain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK II [265-283], 12d.

Bible References: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTAMENT: Nehemiah, 7:45—(D) II Esdras, 7:46.

Symbols: The abbreviation “esp” calls the reader’s attention to one or more especially relevant parts of a whole reference; “passim” signifies that the topic is discussed intermittently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.

For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.

1. The elements of wealth: the distinction between natural and artificial wealth; the distinction between the instruments of production and consumable goods

7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 316c-318d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 8-10, 449d-452d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 5 [1361a14-24], 601c-d 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 2, A 1, ANS and REP 3, 615d-616c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 124b-c 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, 30b-36a passim, esp SECT 40-50, 33d-35d 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XVIII, 128c; BK XX, 152a-b 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348b,d-355a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, INTRO, 1a-c; BK I, 8d-10b; 104b-105a; 106b-c; BK II, 121c-124c; 147c; BK III, 163a-d; BK IV, 182a-300d esp 182b-183a, 186b-187c, 189b-190c, 191d-192a, 194a, 288c-296a 50 MARX: Capital, 13a-c; 88b-d; 150b-c; 253b-255a; 279c-286a esp 279d-280c, 282c-d, 286a; 291a-b

2. The acquisition and management of wealth in the domestic and tribal community

7 PLATO: Republic, BK V, 360c-365d / Laws, BK III, 664a-666a; BK VIII, 709a-710a; BK XI, 775d-778b 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 3-13, 446d-455a,c passim, esp CH 3 [1253b12-14], 447a, CH 4, 447b-c, CH 7 [1255b31-40], 449c, CH 8-11, 449d-453d; BK II, CH 5 [1264a1-7], 459d; BK III, CH 4 [1277b20-25], 474d 14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 72b-c / Pericles, 130b-d / Pelopidas, 233a-b / Marcus Cato, 278b-279c; 286b-287d / Aristides-Marcus Cato, 291b-292b / Crassus, 439a-c / Crassus-Nicias, 455b,d / Agis, 650d-651b 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 32b-d 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 14, 520a-d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 105, A 4, ANS and REP 1-4, 318b-321a 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 122b-124c; 183c-191c passim; 458c-462c; 472a-473a 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 148b-149a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VI, SECT 72-73, 40d-41a; CH VII, SECT 79-80, 42c-43a; CH XVI, SECT 182-183, 67c-68b; SECT 190-192, 69b-d 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 376b-379a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VII, 50a-b; BK XVI, 129d-132b; BK XXIII, 190a-b; BK XXVI, 216a-b; BK XXVIII, 225a-230d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 350a-b / Political Economy, 367a-368c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, INTRO, 1b-c; BK I, 50a-c; BK III, 165b-167a; BK V, 309d-311c passim; 383d-384d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 16c-17d; 66d-67b; 88d-90d passim; 498a-501b passim, esp 498b-c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 83a; 86d-89d 43 MILL: Liberty, 319b-d 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 147c-148b [fn 3]; 274b-278a; 280c-281a; 282a-b; 289c-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 170-172, 60d-61a; par 178-180, 62a-63c; ADDITIONS, 109, 134c; 114, 135b-c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 194b-195a; PART III, 289a-b 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324a-c 50 MARX: Capital, 34c-d; 163a-c; 171d-172b; 174d-175c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 211a-213a; BK VII, 275a-302d passim, esp 275a-278a, 291a-292b, 301b-302d; BK XV, 633a-d; EPILOGUE I, 650d-652a; 654a-655c

3. The production of wealth in the political community

• 3a. Factors in productivity: natural resources, raw materials, labor, tools and machines, capital investments OLD TESTAMENT: Proverbs, 6:6-11; 12:24; 13:4,11; 14:23; 20:4; 24:30-34; 28:19 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 51b-d; BK VI, 194a 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 316c-319a; BK IV, 342d-343a / Critias, 482b-c; 483b-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 4, 447b-c; CH 11 [1258b27-33], 453a 12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK V [1350-1353], 78c-d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 124b-d 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, SECT 32-44, 32a-34c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XV, 111b-c; BK XX, 152a-d; BK XXIII, 191a-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 352a-353c / Social Contract, BK II, 404a-c; BK III, 415b-417a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, INTRO, 1a-c; BK I, 3a-8b esp 5b-6a; 8d-10b; 27b-28a; 33c-37b; 106b-c; BK II, 142d-151c esp 142d-146a, 148c-149a; 155b-157b esp 156b-c; 158a-159a; BK III, 163a-165b esp 163a-d; 173b-c; BK IV, 243b,d-244a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 367d-368a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 196, 67a; par 198, 67b; par 203, 68a-c; ADDITIONS, 125-126, 137a-b; 128, 137b-c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 194b-195d 50 MARX: Capital, 16b-18d; 31b; 79c; 85a-89b; 96a-99d; 149c-150c; 157a-161b; 170c-171a; 180d-192c esp 183b-184a, 188c-189a; 197a-198a; 216d-219b; 239c-d; 249a-250c; 251a-252a; 253b-254b; 285a; 298d; 299b-300a; 303a 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 425a-b

• 3b. The use of land: kinds of land or real estate; the general theory of rent 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 70b-c; BK III, 101d-102a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, SECT 32-44, 32a-34c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XXIII, 191a-b 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 15a-16a; 20b-23b esp 21c; 62a-77a; BK II, 121c-122c; BK III, 163a-181a,c; BK IV, 243b,d-244c; 246d-247c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 90c-d 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 172c-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 80, 34a-b 50 MARX: Capital, 37a; 63a-d; 65c-66a

• 3c. Agricultural production: the produce of land 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 43d-44b; BK II, 51d; 66d-67a; 67c-d; BK III, 112c; BK IV, 124b; 128a-b; 154c-d; 158d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 8 [1256a15-b8], 450a-b 12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK V [1361-1378], 78d-79a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, SECT 40-48, 33d-35c passim 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XIII, 96d-97b; BK XIV, 105a; 105b-c; BK XVIII, 125a-126a; BK XXIII, 191a-b 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 352b-d; 365c-366a / Social Contract, BK III, 415b-417a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 6d-8b; 62a-110d passim; BK II, 157a-b; 162a-d; BK III, 163a-170c esp 163a-c; 175b-181a,c passim; BK IV, 288c-299d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 21c-22c; 367d-368a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 12, 56b-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 203, 68a-c; ADDITIONS, 128, 137b-c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 195a-b; PART IV, 352a 50 MARX: Capital, 210d-211a; 249a-250c; 298c; 318b-c; 333c-353a,c passim, esp 335b-336a, 343a-c; 368c-371c

• 3d. Industrial production: domestic, guild, and factory systems of manufacturing 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XIV, 105c; BK XXIII, 191a-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365c-366a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 3a-10b; BK III, 163a-165b esp 163a-c; 173a-175b; BK IV, 189b-d; 288c-299d 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 314c-315b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 204, 68c-d; par 243, 77b-c / Philosophy of History, PART I, 243d-244c; PART IV, 335a-336c 50 MARX: Capital, 111c-146c passim; 149c-d; 157a-250c esp 157a, 158a-c, 164a-165c, 175c-176a, 184b-188c, 205a-209a, 226a-236c; 369c-371c 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 422d-423a

4. The exchange of wealth or the circulation of commodities: the processes of commerce or trade

• 4a. The forms of value: the distinction between use-value and exchange-value 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 9 [1257a6-41], 451a-b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, SECT 37, 33a-b; SECT 46-51, 35a-36a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 12c-d; 13c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 63, 28b-c; par 80, 34a; PART III, par 204, 68c-d 50 MARX: Capital, 13b-27c esp 13b-14c; 37a-39c; 60c; 74c-76c; 89c-d; 98a-100c; 113d

• 4b. Types of exchange: barter economies and money economies 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK IV, 158b-c 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 316c-319a / Sophist, 555a-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 9, 450d-452b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, SECT 46-51, 35a-36a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK IV, 16d-17b; BK XVIII, 128a-c; BK XXII, 174a-b; 176a-c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 10b-13a esp 10b-11a; 13d-14a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 89b-d 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 383b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 80, 34a 50 MARX: Capital, 37c-42b; 47a-52c; 74c-75a

• 4c. Rent, profit, wages, interest as the elements of price: the distinction between the real and the nominal price and between the natural and the market price of commodities 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XXII, 176a-177a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 13a-27b; 62a-63a,c; 73a-74d; BK II, 121c-d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 425a 50 MARX: Capital, 27a-c; 42b-47a esp 44a-b, 45c-46c; 48b-49b; 74d-77b; 79b [fn 1]; 153d-156c; 265c; 270d-271a; 308b; 310a

• 4d. The source of value: the labor theory of value 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, SECT 40-44, 33d-34c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 353a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 13a-16a; 20b-23b; 27b-37b; 52b-62a passim 42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 274d / Science of Right, 424b-425a 50 MARX: Capital, 13a-22a esp 15a-16a, 19a-b, 20d-21a; 24c-25d; 32d-33b; 35d-36a [fn 1]; 45c-46c; 78c-d; 79a-84a,c; 89d-102b esp 89d-90a, 91c-d, 93b-94a; 152a-156d passim; 188c-192c; 217c-d; 264a-267d esp 266c-d

• 4e. Causes of the fluctuation of market price: supply and demand 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 73b-c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XXII, 176a-177a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 19d-20b; 23c-27b; 36c-37b; 62d-63a; 74d-110d esp 74d-77a; BK IV, 217a-220b 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 656c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 593a-b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 11, 53c-55d passim; NUMBER 35, 112a-c passim 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 172c-d 50 MARX: Capital, 44c-d; 54a-d; 101c-102b; 153d-156c; 173c-174b; 198c-199b; 216a-c; 217c; 256b-262a passim, esp 258b-c, 258d-259b; 265c; 276b-c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XI, 490a-b; BK XIII, 573a-b

• 4f. The consequences of monopoly and competition 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 26b-c; 63d-64a; 67b-68d; 110d; BK II, 142d; BK IV, 263d-264b; 272c-279b; 281d-282a; 287d-288c; BK V, 329d-330c; 394c-395a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 659d-660a 50 MARX: Capital, 130c; 154b-156d; 174a-c; 237c-d; 248c-d; 261d-262a; 270c-271c; 292d-293a; 308d-311b; 373b-374a 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 421c-422a

• 4g. Commerce between states: tariffs and bounties; free trade 5 ARISTOPHANES: Acharnians, 455a-469a,c esp [719-999], 463c-466d 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK IV, 158b-c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 350d-351a; 365b; 384b 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 316c-318a / Laws, BK XII, 788d-789a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 9 [1257a21-41], 451a-b; BK III, CH 9 [1280a36-b3], 478a; BK VII, CH 6, 531b-d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 4 [1360a12-18], 600b-c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 119d-120c; 124c-d 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XII, 98b-99b; BK XIX, 143c-144b; BK XX-XXI, 146a-173d; BK XXII, 177b-184b 38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK II, 404a-b 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK III, 173b-175b; BK IV, 182b-279b esp 245d-246b, 248b-252c, 256a-266d; BK V, 320b-330b 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 21c-23b; 151d; 655d-658b esp 657d-658b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 222b-d; 314c-315b; 342c-343a; 355c-d; 427c-d 42 KANT: Judgement, 504a-b 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: IV [24-36], 5b-c; VI [100-106], 6b; IX [173-185], 7a; [275-285], 8a 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 8 [201-203], 13b; SECT 9 [276-282], 13d; SECT 10 [304-313], 14a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 4, 35c-36a; NUMBER 5, 38b-c; NUMBER 7, 42d-43c; NUMBER 11-12, 53b-58d; NUMBER 22, 80d-81c; NUMBER 35, 112a-113a; NUMBER 41, 135b-c; NUMBER 42, 137d-138c; NUMBER 44, 145b-c 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 171a-b; 281b-c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 246-247, 78a-b; par 339, 110b / Philosophy of History, PART I, 243d-244c; PART III, 277b-c; PART IV, 368c 50 MARX: Capital, 67a-69a; 113d-114a; 218d-219a; 221d-223a; 372c-375c passim 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 420a-b; 421a-c; 428a-b

5. Money

• 5a. The nature of money as a medium of instrument of exchange, and as a measure of equivalents in exchange 7 PLATO: Laws, BK XI, 774a 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK IV, CH 1 [1119b26-27], 366b; BK V, CH 5 [1133a5-b29], 380d-381c; BK IX, CH 1, 416b,d-417c passim / Politics, BK I, CH 9, 450d-452b; CH 10 [1258a38-b8], 452d 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 126b-c 30 BACON: New Atlantis, 201d-202a 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, APPENDIX, XXVIII-XXIX, 450a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, SECT 37, 33a-b; SECT 46-50, 35a-d; CH XVI, SECT 184, 68b-d 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XVIII, 128c; BK XXII, 174a-175a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 10b-11a; BK II, 121c-126d; 139a-b; BK IV, 182b-192c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 89b-d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 423d-425b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 12, 56b-d 43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 462c-463a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 80, 34a; PART III, par 204, 68c-d; par 299, 99c-100b; ADDITIONS, 40, 122d-123b; 177, 147d 50 MARX: Capital, 19a-30d esp 19c, 23a-25d, 30a-d; 37c-79a esp 38c-39a, 39d-44b, 49b-51c, 60c, 61c-62b, 71d-73d, 77c-78a

• 5b. Monetary standards: the coining or minting of money; good and bad money 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 9 [1257a31-41], 451b; [1257b22-23], 451d / Athenian Constitution, CH 10, 556d-557a 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b / Lysander, 361a-d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 126b-d 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XXII, 174b-175c; 177b-182c 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 382d-383a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 10b-12c; 16d-20b; BK II, 124d-142d; 147a-c; BK IV, 182b-192c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 89b-d; 127a-c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 749d [n 49] 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: IX [275-279], 8a; [350-367], 8c-d 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 8 [207-212], 13b; SECT 10 [296-300], 14a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 42, 138d; NUMBER 44, 144b-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART III, 277b-c 50 MARX: Capital, 43b-44a; 44d-45c; 52c-57c; 58a-60c; 66d-67b [fn 3] 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XIII, 574b; EPILOGUE II, 680a-b

• 5c. The price of money: the exchange rate of money as measured in terms of other commodities 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XXII, 175c-182c 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 383b-c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 12b-c; 14d-20b; 77a-109b; BK IV, 203c-204c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 424a-425b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 79, 233d-234a 43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 462c-463a 50 MARX: Capital, 40c-47a esp 41a-42a, 44b-d; 54a-d; 57d-58b [n 3]; 59b-60c; 276b-c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XIII, 574b; EPILOGUE II, 680a-b

• 5d. The institution and function of banks: monetary loans, credit, the financing of capitalistic enterprise 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 77d-78a 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK IX, CH 1 [1164b13-22], 417c 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK VI, 90a-c; BK XI, 103c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XX, 149a-b; BK XXI, 173a; BK XXII, 179c-180c; 182c; 183a-b 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK II, 124d-142d; 151c-155b; BK IV, 204b-209a,c; BK V, 404d-405a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 30, 103a-b 50 MARX: Capital, 62d-66c; 309a-310d; 374a-375c

• 5e. The rate of interest on money: the condemnation of usury OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 22:25 / Leviticus, 25:35-37 / Deuteronomy, 23:19-20; 24:10-13 / Nehemiah, 5:1-12—(D) II Esdras, 5:1-12 / Psalms, 15:5—(D) Psalms, 14:5 / Proverbs, 28:8 / Jeremiah, 15:10—(D) Jeremias, 15:10 / Ezekiel, 18:4-21 esp 18:8, 18:13, 18:17; 22:12—(D) Ezechiel, 18:4-21 esp 18:8, 18:13, 18:17; 22:12 7 PLATO: Republic, BK VIII, 408c-d / Laws, BK V, 694c-d; BK XI, 775c-d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 10 [1258b38-8], 452d 14 PLUTARCH: Marcus Cato, 287c-d / Lucullus, 409b-d 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK VI, 90a-c; BK XI, 103c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 105, A 2, REP 4, 309d-316a; A 3, REP 3, 316a-318b 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, XI [91-115], 16a-b; XVII [34-75], 24b-c 26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT I, sc III, 409c-411b esp [41-103], 410a-c 33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 55a-57a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK V, 29c; BK XII, 92d-93c; BK XXI, 169a-170b; BK XXII, 175d-176a; 183a-187a,c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 22b-d; 37b-41d; BK II, 154c-155a; BK V, 404d-405a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 498c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 90d-91a 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 304b-c; 409a-b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART IV, 353b-c 50 MARX: Capital, 77c-78c; 252b; 293a-d [fn 1]; 371c-372c

6. Capital

• 6a. Comparison of capitalist production with other systems of production: the social utility of capital 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XIII, 96d-97a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, INTRO, 1d; BK II, 148c-149a; 155b-162d; BK III, 165b-181a,c passim; BK IV, 239d-240a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 17b-c; 144b; 619b-620c; 628c-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 199, 67c / Philosophy of History, PART IV, 335a-336c 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324a-b 50 MARX: Capital, 33b-37a; 95a-b [fn 1]; 104d-105a; 113c-115c; 150b; 160d-164a esp 160d-161b, 163a-c; 171d-176a; 239d-240c; 266c; 267c; 281a-b; 295d-296a; 354c-364a passim; 377c-383d 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 419d-423a; 428d-429c

• 6b. Theories of the nature, origin, and growth of capital stock: thrift, savings, excesses beyond the needs of consumption, expropriation 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, 30b-36a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK II, 117a-c; 142d-151c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 170, 60d; par 199-208, 67c-69c 50 MARX: Capital, 69b; 74a-79a; 89d-94c esp 93d-94a; 101a-b; 105b [fn 1]; 221c-d; 279a-377a esp 279a-282a, 286a-288a, 289b, 290c-296a, 301b-302d, 319b-d, 354a-355d, 372a-d

• 6c. Types of capital: fixed and circulating, or constant and variable capital 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK II, 118a-121c; 122b-124c; 151c-162d passim 50 MARX: Capital, 96a-102b esp 101a-c; 280d-282a; 291c-d; 302d-303b; 307c-309b; 311c-312c

• 6d. Capital profits

  • (1) The distinction of profit from rent, interest, and wages 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 20b-23b esp 22d-23b; 28a; 47c-48a; 109d-110d 50 MARX: Capital, 255a-256a; 301b-302d
  • (2) The source of profit: marginal or surplus value; unearned increment and the exploitation of labor 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 20b-21c; 27b-28a; 109d-110d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 244, 77b-c 50 MARX: Capital, 69a-275c esp 71a-79a, 89c-96a, 99d-100b [fn 2], 100a-101b, 104b-105c, 112c, 113c-115c, 117c-129b, 154d-156d, 192d-194b, 197a-200a, 251c-256a, 263c-d, 271b-c; 285c-286a; 314d-315c; 375c-376c
  • (3) Factors determining the variable rate of capital profit 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 6d-8b; 21a-b; 37b-62a; 110b-d; BK II, 151c-155b esp 153a-b, 154b-c; 155b-162d passim 50 MARX: Capital, 102b-113c; 146c-151a,c; 255b-263d; 296b-301b
  • (4) The justification of profit: the reward of enterprise and indemnification for risk of losses 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 42a-b 33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 55a-57a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 20d-21c; BK II, 142d-151c passim; 155b-162d passim, esp 162a-b 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 279b-280a

• 6e. The recurrence of crises in the capitalist economy: depressions, unemployment, the diminishing rate of profit 50 MARX: Capital, 11d; 64c-d esp 64d [fn 2-3]; 100a; 116c-d; 222d-225d; 311c-316d esp 312b, 313d-314a, 315c-316a; 319a; 330d-333c 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 422a-c

7. Property

• 7a. The right of property: the protection of property as the function of government 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 94, A 5, REP 3, 224d-225d 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16a-c / Civil Government, CH V, 30b-36a esp SECT 26, 30d; CH VII, SECT 87-94, 44a-46c; CH IX, 53c-54d esp SECT 123, 53c-d; CH XI, SECT 137-140, 56d-58a; CH XV, SECT 173-174, 65c-d 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 310a-311a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XII, 86c-d; BK XXVI, 221c-d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348b; 353a-358c passim / Political Economy, 377c-d / Social Contract, BK I, 393b-394d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 309a-311c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 486c-d 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 86d-87c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 408c-409c; 411c-413b esp 412c-413b; 414a-c; 416a-b; 441d-443b 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS, V [645-648], 17c; XIV, SECT 1 [748-750], 18d 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 50b-d; NUMBER 54, 171b-c 43 MILL: Representative Government, 366c-d; 422b 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 124b-c; 204b-c; 222d-223a; 225a-c; 275d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 40, 21d-22c; par 44-46, 23c-24a; par 50, 25a; par 66, 29a-c; par 71, 31b-c; PART III, par 208, 69c; par 230, 75c; ADDITIONS, 26-27, 121a-b; 30, 121c / Philosophy of History, PART IV, 364d 50 MARX: Capital, 83d-84a,c; 174b-c; 288c-d 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 425c-427b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XIII, 572d-573b 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 787d-788b

• 7b. Kinds of economic property

  • (1) Chattel slaves as property 5 ARISTOPHANES: Plutus [507-526], 635a-b 7 PLATO: Laws, BK VI, 709a-710a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1252a26-b13], 445c-d; CH 3-4, 446d-447c; CH 8 [1256b1-3], 449d; BK VII, CH 8 [1328a35-38], 532c; CH 10 [1330a25-34], 534d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 5 [1361a12-14], 601c 14 PLUTARCH: Marcus Cato, 278d-279a; 287b-d / Crassus, 439a-c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 105, A 4, ANS and REP 1-4, 318b-321a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 110b-111a; PART IV, 261d-262a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XV, 109a-d; 111d-112c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK III, 167a-d; BK IV, 239c-240a; 253c-254a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 16c-17d; 144b; 620a-b; 628c-d 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 404d 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 42, 137b-c; NUMBER 54, 170b-171b 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 364a-b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 48, 24b-c; par 66, 29a-c 50 MARX: Capital, 113c-114a; 128d-129a; 266b-c; 267c; 283c-d; 354c-355d
  • (2) Property in land OLD TESTAMENT: Leviticus, 25:23-24 / Deuteronomy, 19:14; 27:17 7 PLATO: Laws, BK V, 695c-696a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 9 [1270a15-b6], 466b-c; BK VI, CH 4 [1319a6-19], 522c-d; BK VII, CH 10 [1329b37-1330a25], 534b-d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 5 [1361a12-14], 601c 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK XII, 140b-c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 124d-125b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, SECT 31-34, 31d-32c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VI, 33b 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 353a / Social Contract, BK I, 393d-394d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK III, 163a-170c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 198a-b; 618d-619c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 87a-c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 411c-412c 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 274c-278a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 195a-b; PART I, 226d-227b; PART II, 277b-c; PART III, 295d-297a 50 MARX: Capital, 355d-364a; 368c-369a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 211a-213a
  • (3) Property in capital goods and in monetary wealth 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 9-10, 450d-452d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 5 [1361a12-14], 601c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VI, 33b 50 MARX: Capital, 60d-62d esp 61d-62a; 69b; 150a-151a,c; 279a-290d esp 279a, 287a-b, 289d-290c; 371c-372b

• 7c. The uses of property: for production, consumption, or exchange 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 4 [1254a1-7], 447c; CH 8-11, 449d-453d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 5 [1361a12-24], 601c-d 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, 30b-36a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK II, 118a-121c; 142d-151c esp 150b-151c; 155b-162d; BK III, 165c-166a; 176a-177d; BK V, 351a-c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 411c-413b esp 412c-413b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 59-61, 27a-c; ADDITIONS, 39, 122d 50 MARX: Capital, 30c-32c; 38c-40a; 70d-72c; 89a-b; 282b-283c; 289d-290d; 291a-296a esp 291a-b, 293c-294a

• 7d. The ownership of property: possession or title; the legal regulation of property OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:15; 21:16-19,33-36; 22:1-15; 23:4-5 / Leviticus, 6:2-5; 19:11,13; 24:18-21; 25:13-14,25-34,47-54 / Deuteronomy, 5:19; 19:14; 22:1-4; 24:7; 27:17 / Ruth, 4:1-8 / Jeremiah, 32:6-12—(D) Jeremias, 32:6-12 NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 19:18 / Mark, 10:19 / Luke, 18:20 / Romans, 13:9 7 PLATO: Laws, BK VIII, 738d-740d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 5, 458a-460a; CH 7, 461d-463c; BK VI, CH 4 [1319a6-19], 522c-d 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK XII, 140b-c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 94, A 5, REP 3, 224d-225d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 86b; 91a-b; PART II, 124d-125c 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XVI, SECT 176, 66a-b; SECT 180-184, 67b-68d; SECT 192-194, 69c-70a 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 210b-213a; 310a-311a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XII, 86c-d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348b; 353a-356a / Political Economy, 377b-d / Social Contract, BK I, 393b-394d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK III, 165b-175b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 86a-87c; 89d-90c; 404d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 404a; 407a-408b; 409d-410d; 412c-415c; 422b,d-425b; 426b-428a; 431a-432a; 441d-443b 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS, V [645-648], 17c; XIV, SECT 1 [748-750], 18d 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 7, 41d-42d; NUMBER 43, 139d-140a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 45, 23c-d; par 50, 25a; par 55, 25d-26a; par 64-65, 28c-29a; par 69, 30a-31a; par 80, 33d-34a; PART III, par 218, 72c-d; par 230, 75c; ADDITIONS, 26, 121a-b; 30, 121c; 34, 122a-b / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 195a-b; PART I, 226d-227b; PART III, 288c-289a; 310c 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 292a-297a 50 MARX: Capital, 37c-d; 287b-290a esp 288b-d 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 425d-427b; 428d-429a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XIII, 572d-573b 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 787d-788b

  • (1) Private ownership: partnerships, joint-stock companies 7 PLATO: Republic, BK III, 341c-d; BK V, 364c-365d / Laws, BK V, 695a-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 5, 458a-460a; CH 7, 461d-463c; BK VII, CH 10 [1329b37-1330a33], 534b-d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 94, A 5, REP 3, 224d-225d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 150a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XXVI, 221c-222a 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348b 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 319d-331d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 441d-443b 43 MILL: Liberty, 319d-320a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 46, 23d-24a 50 MARX: Capital, 89a-b 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 425d-426a; 426c-d
  • (2) Government ownership: eminent domain 7 PLATO: Laws, BK V, 691b-696d 9 ARISTOTLE: Athenian Constitution, CH 47, par 2, 574c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 125c-d; 150a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XXVI, 221c-222b 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 378c-379d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 357b,d-361d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 441d-443b 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS, V [645-648], 17c; XIV, SECT 1 [748-750], 18d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART III, 296b-297a; PART IV, 355c-d 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 428d-429a

• 7e. The inheritance of property: laws regulating inheritance OLD TESTAMENT: Numbers, 27:8-11; 36—(D) Numbers, 27:7-11; 36 / Deuteronomy, 21:15-17 / Ruth, 4:1-8 / Jeremiah, 32:6-12—(D) Jeremias, 32:6-12 5 ARISTOPHANES: Birds [1641-1670], 562b-c 7 PLATO: Laws, BK XI, 775d-779b 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK VIII, CH 10 [1160b33-1161a2], 413a-b / Politics, BK II, CH 9 [1270a15-b6], 466b-c 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XVIII, 24b-c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 189c-190d 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 148b-149a 30 BACON: New Atlantis, 209d 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XVI, SECT 182-184, 67c-68d; SECT 190-194, 69b-70a passim 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK V, 19d-20d; 21c; 27d-28a; BK XVII, 129d-132a; BK XXVI, 216b-c; 217b; BK XXVII, 225a-230d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 357b / Political Economy, 367b-d; 377d-378a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK III, 165b-173b; 179b-180c; BK IV, 246d-247c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 66d-67b; 619c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 83a; 87d-89d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 426b-428a esp 427c-428a; 441d-443b esp 442c 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 203c-d; 204c-205c; 274b-278a esp 277d [fn 1]; 280c-281a; 282a-b; 289c-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 178-180, 62a-63c / Philosophy of History, PART II, 277b; PART III, 289a-b 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324a-c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 26a-30a; 38d-41a; 45b-47b; BK VIII, 306a; 309d-310d; EPILOGUE I, 650d-652a

8. The distribution of wealth: the problem of poverty

7 PLATO: Laws, BK V, 691d-696d; BK VII, 738d-741d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 9 [1270a15-b6], 466b-c / Athenian Constitution, CH 12, 557b-558a 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK II, 31a-b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 124d-126a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, 30b-36a 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART IV, 154b-155b 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 375b-d / Social Contract, BK II, 405b-c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 20b-63a,c; BK II, 121c-d; 142d-151c esp 150b-151c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 22c; 89d; 486c-d; 501c 43 MILL: Liberty, 309a-c / Representative Government, 366c-367a / Utilitarianism, 472d-473a 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 124d-125c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 49, 24c-25a; PART III, par 244-245, 77c-d; ADDITIONS, 29, 121c; 149, 140d-141a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 193b-c; PART I, 226d-227b; PART II, 263b-d; 277b-c 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324a-c 50 MARX: Capital, 34d-35c; 218d-219d; 261d-262a; 301b-302d; 319d-321b; 354b-c 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 425d-426d; 428d-429a 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK VI, 165b-166a 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 787d-788b [fn 3]

• 8a. The sharing of wealth: goods and lands held in common; public ownership of the means of production NEW TESTAMENT: Acts, 2:44-47; 4:32-5:11 5 ARISTOPHANES: Ecclesiazusae, 615a-628d esp [395-476], 619b-620a, [553-729], 621b-623c 7 PLATO: Republic, BK III, 341c-d; BK V, 364c-365d / Critias, 480a; 481a-b 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK VIII, CH 9, 411d-412c / Politics, BK II, CH 1 [1260b36-1261a7], 455b,d; CH 5, 458a-460a; CH 7, 461d-463c; CH 10 [1272a12-20], 468b-c; BK III, CH 10 [1281a13-23], 478d-479a; BK V, CH 8 [1309a15-17], 511b; BK VII, CH 10 [1329b37-1330a33], 534b-d / Athenian Constitution, CH 11, par 2, 557a-b; CH 12, par 3, 557c-d 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b / Numa Pompilius, 58a-d / Agis, 648b,d-656d / Cleomenes, 657a-663c / Tiberius Gracchus, 674c-681a,c 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK XII, 140b-c / Histories, BK IV, 286c-287a 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 98, A 1, REP 3, 516d-517c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 94, A 5, REP 3, 224d-225d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 94d 26 SHAKESPEARE: 2 Henry VI, ACT IV, sc II [68-82], 58c 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, APPENDIX, XVII, 448d 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, SECT 24-29, 30b-31c; SECT 34, 32b-c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK IV, 16a-17b 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 197b-c 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 222d-223a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 46, 23d-24a; par 64-65, 28c-29a; PART III, par 170-171, 60d-61a; ADDITIONS, 27, 121b / Philosophy of History, PART I, 226d-227b; 240d-241a 50 MARX: Capital, 34d-35a; 163a-d; 174d-175c; 377c-378d 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 425d-426a

• 8b. The division of common goods into private property: factors influencing the increase and decrease of private property OLD TESTAMENT: Numbers, 26:52-56; 33:50-54 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 70b-c; BK III, 101d-102a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 5 [1263a5-8], 458c; BK VI, CH 5 [1320a29-b9], 523d-524a 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK II, 31a-b 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 98, A 1, REP 3, 516d-517c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 94, A 5, REP 3, 224d-225d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 124d-125b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, 30b-36a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK V, 19d-21d; BK XVIII, 127c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348b,d; 352a / Social Contract, BK I, 393d-394d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 20b-21c; 27b-28a; BK IV, 239c-d; BK V, 309a-c; 311b-c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 87a 42 KANT: Science of Right, 414c-415c; 422b,d-425b; 426b-428a; 431a-432a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 46, 23d-24a; par 64-65, 28c-29a; PART III, par 178, 62a-b; par 237, 76c; ADDITIONS, 27, 121b 50 MARX: Capital, 288b-d; 358a-361d; 368c-369a; 377c-378d; 383d

• 8c. The causes of poverty: competition, incompetence, indigence, expropriation, unemployment; the poverty of the proletariat as dispossessed of the instruments of production 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b / Lycurgus-Numa, 62b-c / Lucullus, 409b-d 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK I, 194d-195a 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART IV, 154b-155b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XX, 147a; XXIII, 190a-b; 191b-c; 199b-200a,c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365c-366a / Political Economy, 375b-d / Social Contract, BK III, 415b-d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 27b-37b esp 28a-d, 30b-31b; BK IV, 239c-240a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 501c-d 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 428b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 195, 66d-67a; par 240-241, 76d-77a; par 243-244, 77b-c; ADDITIONS, 148-149, 140c-141a 50 MARX: Capital, 150b-c; 160d-162d; 209c-225d esp 211a-d; 280c-286a esp 282b-c, 283b-d, 285c-286a; 288b-d; 303b-305a; 307a-c; 315c-321b esp 319c-d; 325d-327b; 349a-350a; 354a-355d; 357a-358a; 360a-361c; 364a-c; 370a-371c; 375a-b 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 424d-425a; 426c-d

• 8d. Laws concerning poverty: the poor laws, the dole OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 23:11 / Leviticus, 19:9-10; 23:22; 25:25,35-54 / Deuteronomy, 15:7-11; 24:17-22; 26:12-13 5 ARISTOPHANES: Ecclesiazusae [408-426], 619b-c 7 PLATO: Republic, BK IV, 342a-344a / Laws, BK V, 695a-c; BK XI, 783b 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK VI, CH 5 [1320a29-b15], 523d-524b 14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 68d-70c / Poplicola-Solon, 87a / Pericles, 127a-128a / Lucullus, 409b-d / Caesar, 581c-d 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK II, 32b-d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 142b-c; 157a 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, APPENDIX, XVII, 448d 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XXIII, 199b-200a,c 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 375b-d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 59a-61b; BK IV, 200c-201a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 175c-d; 501d-502b 42 KANT: Science of Right, 443b-444a 43 MILL: Liberty, 322a-d esp 322c-d / Representative Government, 383d-384a 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 442d-443a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 245, 77c-d 50 MARX: Capital, 211d [fn 3]; 358a-b esp 358b-d [n 5]; 364a-366a

9. Political economy: the nature of the science of economics

9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 1-2, 339a-d passim, esp CH 1 [1094a7-9], 339a / Politics, BK I, CH 8 [1256b27-39], 450c-d; CH 10 [1258a19-38], 452b-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 367a-385a,c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, INTRO, 1d-2a,c; BK IV, 182a 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 281b-c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 189, 65d-66a; ADDITIONS, 120, 136b-c 50 MARX: Capital, 6a-d; 8a-11d passim; 33a-37c esp 36a-b [fn 1]; 178d-179c; 305a-c [fn 2]

• 9a. Wealth as an element in the political common good 5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [528-558], 382c-d 5 ARISTOPHANES: Plutus, 629a-642d esp [415-618], 633d-636d 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK IX, 314a,c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 352a-b; BK II, 396d; 397b-c; BK VIII, 569d 7 PLATO: Republic, BK III-IV, 341c-344a; BK V, 364c-365d; BK VII, 405c-408a / Critias, 485b-c / Laws, BK III, 665b; BK V, 687d-688a; 694a-695c; BK VIII, 733b-d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 10 [1258a19-38], 452b-c; BK II, CH 7 [1267a18-36], 462d-463a; CH 9 [1269b13-1270a6], 465d-466c; [1271b1-17], 467d; BK III, CH 12 [1283a12-20], 481a-b; BK VII, CH 2 [1324a8-10], 528a; CH 4 [1325b33-1326a4], 530a; CH 5-6, 530d-531d; CH 8, 532c-533a / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 4 [1359b19-29], 599d-600a 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b; 47d / Lycurgus-Numa, 62b-c / Coriolanus, 180b-d / Aristides-Marcus Cato, 291b-292b / Lysander, 361a-d / Agis, 649b-c 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK II, 31a-b; BK III, 57b-58d; BK XII, 140b-c / Histories, BK II, 232d-233a 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XXI, 32d-33a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b; PART II, 124b-127a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK V, 19a-21d; 23a-25c; BK VII, 44a-48a; BK XIII, 96c; BK XX, 146b-147d; BK XXI, 153c-d; 154b 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 325d; 327c-328a; 352a-355a passim; 365c-366b / Political Economy, 375b-d; 377b-385a,c passim / Social Contract, BK III, 415b-417a; 421c-d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 27b-31b; 33c-35c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 89c-d; 456d-457a,c; 498a-501d; 642a-b; 655d-656a 42 KANT: Science of Right, 443b-d 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 21, 79b-80a 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 124d-125c; 172b-173a; 210d-211b; 281b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 143, 139d-140a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 193b-c; PART II, 263b-d 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324a-d 50 MARX: Capital, 292d; 320b-321b; 374a-c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XIII, 572d-573b

• 9b. Factors determining the prosperity or opulence of states: fluctuations in national prosperity 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 352c-d 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 316c-317a / Laws, BK IV, 677a-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK VII, CH 6, 531b-d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 154b-c 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 253a-b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VII, 44a-47c; BK XIII, 96b-d; BK XVIII, 125d; 127a-b; 132a-b; BK XX, 152a-d; BK XXI, 154b-c; BK XXII, 174c-d; 183b-c; BK XXIII, 191a-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 352a-353a; 360b-361a; 365c-366a / Political Economy, 375b-d; 383b-c / Social Contract, BK II, 404a-c; BK III, 415b-417a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I-IV, 3a-300d esp BK I, 3a-10b, BK II, 142d-151c, 155b-162d, BK IV, 182b-192c, 279b-300d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 21c-22c; 236c-237a; 239b-d; 456d-457a; 501b-d; 642a-c; 655d-658d 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 221b-222d; 314c-315d esp 315b-d; 355c-d; 427c-d; 558c-d; 597c-598a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 2, 31c-d; NUMBER 5, 38a; NUMBER 11-12, 53b-56d passim; NUMBER 21, 79c-d 43 MILL: Representative Government, 335a-b 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 171a-b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 243-247, 77b-78b / Philosophy of History, PART I, 243d-244c; PART II, 263b-d; PART III, 299a-c 50 MARX: Capital, 31a-37c passim; 111a; 178c-179a; 218c-219a; 253b-254b; 377c-378a 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 421b-c

• 9c. Diverse economic programs for securing the wealth of nations: the physiocratic, the mercantilist, and the laissez-faire systems 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365c-366a / Political Economy, 377b-385a,c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 104b-105a; BK IV, 182a-300d esp 182b-192c, 279b-300d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 41c; 66b-c; 642b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 87b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 11, 55c-d 43 MILL: Liberty, 312c-313a 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 280d-281a 50 MARX: Capital, 251c-252a 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 426b-c

• 9d. Governmental regulation of production, trade, or other aspects of economic life 7 PLATO: Republic, BK IV, 342d-343a; BK VIII, 408b-d / Laws, BK VII, 742a-d; BK XI, 771b-775d 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b / Lycurgus-Numa, 61b,d-62c / Pericles, 127a-128a 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK VI, 90a-c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 119d-120b; 125d-126a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XX, 148c-d; 149c-150a; 152a-d; BK XXII, 176a-177a; 183a 38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK II, 405b-c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 51a-62a; BK II, 161a; BK III, 170b-c; BK IV, 182a-300d; BK V, 315a-331d passim 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 66b-c; 198a; 249d-250b; 392c-393a; 486c-d; 656c-658b esp 657d 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 87b-91a 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: IV [24-36], 5b-c; IX [173-185], 7a; [275-285], 8a 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 8 [201-203], 13b; SECT 9 [276-282], 13d; SECT 10 [304-313], 14a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 22, 80d-81c; NUMBER 42, 137b-138c; NUMBER 44, 145b-c; NUMBER 45, 149d-150a 43 MILL: Liberty, 312c-313a; 319d-320a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 235-236, 76a-c; par 240-242, 76d-77b; par 248, 78b-c; ADDITIONS, 145, 140b; 148, 140c-d; 150, 141a-b 50 MARX: Capital, 79d-80b [fn 4]; 108c-111a passim; 115c-122c; 127c-146c esp 146a-c; 174a-c; 193a-194b; 200a; 209a-d [fn 1-3]; 233c-235a; 236c-248d esp 236c-237d, 248c-d; 277d-278a,c; 357a-358a; 366c-368b; 374a-375c 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 426c

• 9e. The economic support of government and the services of government

  • (1) The charges of government: the cost of maintaining its services; elements in the national budget 5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights [773-835], 479b-480b / Wasps [653-724], 515c-516d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 11 [1259a33-36], 453d; BK II, CH 9 [1271b10-17], 467d; BK VI, CH 5 [1320a17-b16], 523d-524b; BK VII, CH 8 [1328b11-12], 532d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 4 [1359b23-33], 600a 14 PLUTARCH: Cato the Younger, 625b-626d 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK IV, 268c-d 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XI, SECT 140, 58a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XIII, 96a-b 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 377b-380d / Social Contract, BK III, 415b-417a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 182b-192c passim; BK V, 301a-357c; 401d-403b 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 41b-c; 65a-b; 155d-156a; 249d-250a; 368a-b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 177a-b; 315b-317a 42 KANT: Science of Right, 441d-444c; 451d-452a 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: VIII, 6d-7a; XII, 9b 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 6 [132-135], 12c; [143-148], 12c-d; SECT 8 [226-229], 13b-c; [235-253], 13c passim; SECT 9 [283-288], 13d-14a; ARTICLE II, SECT 1 [394-400], 15a; ARTICLE III, SECT 1 [463-468], 15c; ARTICLE VI [578-582], 16d; AMENDMENTS, XIV, SECT 4, 19a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 13, 59a-60a; NUMBER 30-31, 101a-107b esp NUMBER 30, 101a-b; NUMBER 34, 109b-111d; NUMBER 43, 142d-143a; NUMBER 73, 218d-219b; NUMBER 79, 233c-234a; NUMBER 84, 254c-256a 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 281d-282a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART IV, 365c-d
  • (2) Methods of defraying the expenses of government: taxation and other forms of levy or impost; confiscations, seizures, and other abuses of taxation OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 41:33-36 APOCRYPHA: I Maccabees, 10:25-31—(D) OT, I Machabees, 10:25-31 5 ARISTOPHANES: Wasps [653-724], 515c-516d / Birds [27-48], 542c-d 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 43c; BK III, 109d-111b; 114b-c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 373b-c; BK III, 420d-421b 7 PLATO: Laws, BK XII, 791d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 11 [1259a23-36], 453c-d; BK VI, CH 5 [1320a20-22], 523d / Athenian Constitution, CH 47-48, 574b-575b 14 PLUTARCH: Aristides, 274c-d / Marcus Cato, 285c-d / Lucullus, 409b-d 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK IV, 82d-83a; BK XIII, 139a-c / Histories, BK I, 194d-195a; BK II, 236d-237a 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XVI, 22d-23b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 78c-d; PART II, 104b-d; 152a-b; 156c-157a 27 SHAKESPEARE: Cymbeline, ACT III, sc I, 463c-464c / Henry VIII, ACT I, sc II [18-101], 552d-553d 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XI, SECT 140, 58a 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART I, 11b-12a; 29b-31a; PART II, 75a-b; PART III, 113b-114a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK V, 23c-24b; BK XIII, 96a-102a,c; BK XIX, 143b-c; BK XX, 149d-150a; BK XXII, 183b-184b 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 377b-385a,c / Social Contract, BK III, 415b-417a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 192c-288c esp 192c-233d, 279b-288c; BK V, 311c-313a; 315a-319d; 356d-421d esp 361b,d-401d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 41b-c; 64d-68a; 86a; 162c; 251d-255c; 368a-b; 413a; 577d-578c; 658c-660c esp 659c-660c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 177a-b; 417b-c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 441d-444c 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [63-70], 2b 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: IV [24-36], 5b-c; VI [100-106], 6b; VIII, 6d-7a; IX [286-290], 8a; [299-318], 8b; [350-367], 8c-d passim 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 2 [17-40], 11b-d; SECT 7 [152-155], 12d; SECT 8 [192-200], 13a; SECT 9, 13d-14a passim; SECT 10 [296-313], 14a; AMENDMENTS, V, 17b-c; XVI, 19b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 7, 43c-44a; NUMBER 12, 56d-58d; NUMBER 21, 79b-80c; NUMBER 30-36, 101a-117d; NUMBER 41, 135b-c; NUMBER 44, 145b-c; NUMBER 45, 149b-150b; NUMBER 83, 246b-c; NUMBER 84, 253b [fn 1] 43 MILL: Liberty, 315c-d / Representative Government, 335a-b; 356c-d; 366d-367a; 383b-d / Utilitarianism, 473a-c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 299, 99c-100b; ADDITIONS, 177, 147d / Philosophy of History, PART I, 226d-227b; 243b; PART III, 299a-c; 310c; PART IV, 324b; 325b-c; 335a-336c; 364d 50 MARX: Capital, 65c-66a; 375a-b 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 429a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK IX, 384c-388a,c

• 9f. Wealth or property in relation to different forms of government 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 350d-351a; 352c-d; BK VIII, 575d-576b; 579c-590c 7 PLATO: Republic, BK I, 316c-319a; BK VIII, 401d-416a / Laws, BK V, 695a-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK V, CH 3 [1131a24-29], 378d; BK VIII, CH 10 [1160b11-16], 412d; [1160b3-1161a2], 413a-b / Politics, BK III, CH 11 [1273a3-b7], 469c-470a; BK III, CH 7, 476c-477a esp [1279b4-10], 476d-477a; CH 8-10, 477a-479a passim; CH 11 [1282a24-41], 480a-b; CH 13 [1283b23-1284a2], 481b-482a; CH 15 [1286b8-22], 484d-485a; BK IV, CH 3 [1289b28-1290a13], 488d-489a; CH 4 [1290a30-b20], 489b-d; [1291b7-13], 490d; CH 6 [1293a12-34], 492d-493a; CH 9 [1294b19-30], 494c-d; BK V, CH 1, 502a-503b; CH 8 [1308b10-1309a30], 510d-511c; CH 12 [1316b15-22], 519c-d; BK VI, CH 3-6, 521c-524c / Athenian Constitution, CH 2-5, 553a-555a; CH 11-12, 557a-558a / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 8 [1366a3-6], 608b 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b; 47a-48a / Solon, 68d-71c / Poplicola-Solon, 87a / Pericles, 125b-130d / Coriolanus, 180b-d / Lysander, 361a-d / Lucullus, 400d-401a / Agis, 649c-650d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 95, A 4, ANS, 229b-230c; Q 105, A 2, ANS and REP 1-6, 309d-316a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 124d-125c; 150a; 154b-c 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VII, SECT 85, 43c-d; SECT 90-94, 44d-46c passim; CH XI, SECT 138, 57b-c; CH XV, SECT 173-174, 65c-d 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK II, 3c-d; BK III, 10a; BK IV, 16d-17b; 17d-18a; BK V, 19a-21d; 23a-25c; 27d-28a; 29b-30a; 32b-c; BK VII, 44d-46c; 50a-b; BK XIII, 96a-102a,c; BK XVIII, 125a-c; 126b-d; BK XX, 147a-d; 149a-c; BK XXII, 174c-d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 359a-d / Social Contract, BK III, 411a-b; 412b-c; 415b-417a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 243b,d-255a,c; BK V, 356b,d; 401d-403a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 90d-91a; 144b; 413a; 619b-c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73b; 403c-d; 404c-d; 427c-428a 42 KANT: Science of Right, 413d; 441d-443b esp 441d-442c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 85, 256b-c 43 MILL: Liberty, 309a-c / Representative Government, 369b-370a; 384a-386c passim, esp 385a-b; 393c-394d 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 182c-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 193b-c; PART I, 226d-227b; PART IV, 335a-336c; 364d 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 295a-297a

• 9g. Wealth and poverty in relation to crime and to war between states 5 ARISTOPHANES: Peace [601-648], 532d-533c; [1191-1264], 540a-d / Lysistrata [486-492], 589a 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 4b-c; 5a-b; 16b-c; 21b; BK II, 73b-74d; 79a-c; 87a-b; BK III, 115c-116a; BK IV, 146a-b; BK V, 160d-161a; 169a-c; BK VI, 194a; 211a-b; BK VII, 214d-216b; BK VIII, 280b-d; BK IX, 288b; 297b-d; 305d-306a; 314a,c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 349b-d; 350d; 352a-b; 369b-370a; 378c-d; 384d-386b; BK II, 390c-391c; 402d-404a; BK III, 419d-420b; 420d-421b; BK IV, 461d-462a; BK V, 482d-483a; BK VII, 545b-546c 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 318c-319a; BK IV, 342d-344a; BK VIII, 406c-407a / Laws, BK XI, 771b-772b / Seventh Letter, 814b-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 6 [1265b10-12], 461a; CH 7 [1267a2-8], 462c-d; CH 9 [1270a15-b3], 466b-c; [1271b10-17], 467d; BK V, CH 7 [1306b32-1307a3], 508d-509a 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-c; 47d / Sulla, 374d-375b / Cleomenes, 667a-c / Marcus Brutus, 817d-818a 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK VI, 89c / Histories, BK I, 195d; 201a-b; BK II, 223b-c 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, VI [58-75], 9a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 76d; PART II, 140c-d; 142b-c; 157a 26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT V, sc II [23-76], 563c-564a 30 BACON: New Atlantis, 204d-205a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XVI, SECT 180-184, 67b-68d 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 225a 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 271c-273a,c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XII, 86c-d; BK XIII, 100d-101a; BK XVIII, 125d; BK XX, 152a-b 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 353c-354b; 365d-366b / Social Contract, BK I, 389d-390a; BK II, 404c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 187c-190b; BK V, 301a-309a,c; 403a-b; 408a-411b 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 35a; 175c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 87b; 343b; 593a-c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 4, 35b-d; NUMBER 5, 38b-c; NUMBER 6, 40a-41a; NUMBER 7, 41d-44c; NUMBER 8, 45b-46a; NUMBER 28, 98b; NUMBER 30, 102d-103a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 124, 137a; 148-149, 140c-141a 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [11,151-287], 271b-274b 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 325d-326a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK X, 424b-c; 440d-441a; BK XI, 475b-476c; 490a-b; 500d-502a; BK XIII, 572d-573b; BK XV, 634a-635a

• 9h. The struggle of economic classes for political power 5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [229-245], 260b-c 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VI, 202c-203b; BK VII, 243b-c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK III, 423a-b; 427d-428a; 428c-d; 434c-438c passim; BK IV, 459a-c; 463a-465c; BK V, 482d-483a; 502d-504b; BK VI, 520b-c; BK VIII, 564a-593a,c passim 7 PLATO: Republic, BK IV, 342d-344a; BK VIII, 405c-406b esp 406b 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK III, CH 10 [1281a11-29], 478d-479a; CH 15 [1286b8-22], 484d-485a; BK IV, CH 3 [1289b28-1290a13], 488d-489a; CH 4 [1291b7-13], 490d; CH 6 [1293a12-34], 492d-493a; BK V, CH 1, 502a-503b passim; CH 3 [1303a4-8], 505a; [1303b15-18], 505a-b; CH 4 [1304a40-b6], 506a; CH 5-6, 506b-508c; CH 7 [1306b32-1307a3], 508d-509a; CH 9 [1310a22-25], 512c; BK VI, CH 3, 521c-522a / Athenian Constitution, CH 2-5, 553a-555a; CH 11-12, 557a-558a 14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 68d-71c; 75c-76d / Camillus, 117c-121a,c / Coriolanus, 176b-184c / Agis, 648b,d-656d / Cleomenes, 657a-663c / Tiberius Gracchus, 671b,d-681a,c / Caius Gracchus, 681b,d-689a,c / Caius and Tiberius Gracchus-Agis and Cleomenes, 689b,d-691a,c / Cicero, 708a-713b 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK VI, 97b 26 SHAKESPEARE: 2 Henry VI, ACT IV, 56a-64d 27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, 351a-392a,c esp ACT I, sc I [1-167], 351a-353a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XI, 77b-80a 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 352a-356a passim, esp 355a-356a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 109d-110d; BK V, 309a-311c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 144a-d 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 50b-51b 43 MILL: Representative Government, 345c-346a; 366c-367b; 369b-370a; 393c-394d; 398a-d 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 251a; 255d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 149, 140d-141a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 193b-c; PART II, 263b-d; 275b-276a; PART III, 295d-297a 50 MARX: Capital, 6d-7d esp 7b-d; 8a-9c; 63b-c; 113c; 134c-146c esp 145a 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 415a-434d esp 415b-c, 416c-d, 420b-c, 423b-425c, 429b-c, 434c-d 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK VI, 165b-166a 54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 882b-884d

10. The moral aspects of wealth and poverty

• 10a. The nature of wealth as a good: its place in the order of goods and its relation to happiness OLD TESTAMENT: I Kings, 3:6-14—(D) III Kings, 3:6-14 / II Chronicles, 1:7-12—(D) II Paralipomenon, 1:7-12 / Job, 21:7-13; 31:24-28; 36:18-19 / Psalms, 49; 52:7—(D) Psalms, 48; 51:9 / Proverbs, 1:19; 8:10-11; 10:2; 11:4,28; 13:7; 14:20; 15:16-17; 16:8; 17:1; 19:4,6-7; 22:1; 23:4-5; 27:24; 28:6,11,20,22 / Ecclesiastes, 2:3-11; 4:6-8; 5:9-6:2 esp 5:13-15, 5:19-20, 6:2; 7:12; 10:19—(D) Ecclesiastes, 2:3-11; 4:6-8; 5:8-6:2 esp 5:12-14, 5:18-19, 6:2; 7:13; 10:19 / Jeremiah, 9:23-24—(D) Jeremias, 9:23-24 / Ezekiel, 7:19—(D) Ezechiel, 7:19 / Zephaniah, 1:18—(D) Sophonias, 1:18 APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4:21—(D) OT, Tobias, 4:23 / Wisdom of Solomon, 5:8-12; 7:7-11—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 5:8-12; 7:7-11 / Ecclesiasticus, 7:18-19; 8:2; 10:30-31; 11:18-27; 12:8; 13 esp 13:1-7, 13:19-24; 20:30; 29:22-23; 30:14-16; 31:1-11; 40:25-26—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 7:20-21; 8:2-3; 10:33-34; 11:18-29; 12:8; 13 esp 13:1-8, 13:23-30; 20:32; 29:28-29; 30:14-16; 31:1-11; 40:25-27 / Baruch, 3:16-19—(D) OT, Baruch, 3:16-19 NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 6:19-34; 13:18-23; 19:16-30 / Mark, 4:1-20 esp 4:19; 10:17-31 / Luke, 6:20-26; 8:5-15 esp 8:14; 12:13-34; 16:19-25; 18:18-30 / I Timothy, 6:6-12,17-19 / James, 5:1-6 5 AESCHYLUS: Persians [161-169], 17a 5 EURIPIDES: Electra [361-400], 330b-d; [420-431], 331a; [938-944], 335c / Hecuba [1206-1232], 363b / Phoenician Maidens [383-442], 381a-d; [528-567], 382c-d / Cyclops [316-346], 443b 5 ARISTOPHANES: Birds [592-605], 550a-b / Plutus [76-197], 630a-631b; [415-618], 633d-636d 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 6c-8a; BK III, 121b-c; BK V, 169d-170a; BK VIII, 264c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 350d-351a 7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 74b-c / Meno, 177d-178d / Apology, 206b-c / Gorgias, 254d-255b / Republic, BK I, 296c-297b; BK II, 325b-c; BK III-IV, 341c-343b / Critias, 479d; 485b-c / Laws, BK IX, 751c 8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK III, CH 1 [116a1-7], 162a; [116b22-117a4], 163b-c; CH 3 [118b1-9], 165b-c / Sophistical Refutations, CH 25 [180a7-11], 248d 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 1-2, 339a-d passim; CH 3 [1094b17-19], 339d; CH 4 [1095a14-29], 340b-c; CH 5 [1096a5-10], 341a-b; CH 7 [1097a15-b8], 342c-d passim, esp [1097b25-28], 342c; CH 8 [1099a31-b8], 344d-345a; BK IV, CH 3 [1124a13-b6], 371a-b; CH 7 [1127a9-22], 374d-375a; BK V, CH 2 [1130b13-17], 377c-378a; BK X, CH 3 [1173b25-27], 428a / Politics, BK I, CH 9-10, 450d-452d; BK III, CH 12 [1283a12-20], 481a-b; BK VII, CH 1 [1323b22]-CH 2 [1324a10], 527a-528a; CH 8, 532c-533a / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 1 [1355b1-8], 594d; CH 5 [1360b14-30], 601a-b; [1361a12-24], 601c-d; CH 6 [1362b10-28], 603b-c esp [1362b18-19], 603c; BK II, CH 16, 638b-c 12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK III [1-54], 15a-d; BK V [1113-1135], 75c-d; BK VI [1-34], 80a-c 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK II, CH 19, 162c-164b; BK IV, CH 6, 230b-232c 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK VIII, SECT 33, 288a 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b / Pericles, 130b-c / Pelopidas, 233a-b / Marcus Cato, 285c-d / Aristides-Marcus Cato, 291b-292b / Lysander, 361a-d 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK VI, 91c; BK XIV, 154a-c / Histories, BK II, 232d-233a 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I, CH 8-10, 133a-136c 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 26, A 4, ANS and REP 2, 151c-152a,c; PART I-II, Q 1, A 7, ANS, 614c-615a; Q 2, A 1, 615d-616c; A 5, REP 1, 618d-619c; Q 4, A 7, 635b-636a 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, VII [1-96], 9c-10c; PURGATORY, XV [40-81], 75d-76a; XVII [127-139], 79d; XIX [70]-XXII [114], 82b-87c 22 CHAUCER: Prologue of Man of Law’s Tale [4519-4546], 235b-236a / Tale of Wife of Bath [6691-6788], 274b-276a / Tale of Melibeus, par 49-53, 422a-425b; par 77, 430b-431a 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XVIII, 24b-c; CH XIX, 26a-b; CH XXV, 35c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 74d-75a; 90c; PART II, 155b-c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 110a-c; 122a-124d; 126b-131a passim 26 SHAKESPEARE: Romeo and Juliet, ACT V, sc I [66-86], 315b / King John, ACT II, sc I [561-598], 385c-386a / As You Like It, ACT II, sc V [40-59], 606d 27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello, ACT I, sc III [339-380], 212c-d; ACT III, sc III [154-161], 223d / Timon of Athens, 393a-420d esp ACT IV, sc II, 410a-c, sc III [24-47], 410d-411a, [382-462], 415a-d / Pericles, ACT II, sc IV, 425c-426d / Cymbeline, ACT II, sc III [70-95], 460a-b; ACT III, sc VI [1-36], 470d-471b / Sonnets, CXLVI, 608c 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 222c; 338b-c 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 86b-c; 92a-b 35 LOCKE: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 55-56, 192c-193b 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 17c-d; 32a-d; 103c-104a; 263c-d; 283a-c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK V, 19a-d; BK XIII, 96c; BK XX, 146b-d; 150b-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 360b-361a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 22c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 297c-298a 42 KANT: Fund. Prin. Metaphysic of Morals, 256a-b / Practical Reason, 330d-331a / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 370b-d 43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 462c-463b 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 102d-103a; 124d-125c; 140b-141a; 189d-190b; 210d-211b; 300a-c; 349a-c; 403a; 491b; 492b-c; 493c; 498d-499a 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [2796-2804], 68a-b; PART II [5987-6171], 146b-151a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 30a-31a; 50b; BK III, 111a-113a; BK V, 194d; BK VI, 250a-251d; BK VIII, 311a-313a 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK IV, 105c-107a; BK V, 110c-111c; 130d-132b; BK VI, 158b-159a; 164b-166a; BK VIII, 191b,d-235d; BK XI, 308a-b 53 JAMES: Psychology, 188b-189b; 202b-203a; 725b-726a 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 777a-779a

• 10b. Natural limits to the acquisition of wealth by individuals: the distinction between necessities and luxuries 5 EURIPIDES: Helen [903-908], 306d-307a / Electra [420-431], 331a / Phoenician Maidens [528-567], 382c-d 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 316c-319a; BK VIII, 409d-410c / Timaeus, 442c-d / Critias, 479d 8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK III, CH 2 [118a6-16], 164d-165a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 8 [1256b27-39], 450c-d; CH 9 [1257b17-1258a14], 451d-452b; BK VII, CH 5 [1326b26-38], 530d-531a 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK IV, CH 4, 225a-228a; CH 9, 237d-238d 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b / Marcus Cato, 285c-d / Aristides-Marcus Cato, 291b-292b 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK II, 31a-b; BK III, 57b-58d 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 2, A 1, ANS and REP 3, 615d-616c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 32, AA 5-6, 544a-546b 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, XI [91-115], 16a-b; XVII [34-75], 24b-c 22 CHAUCER: Tale of Melibeus, par 49-51, 422a-424a 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 110a-c; 131b-132a; 216d-218a; 489b-490c 27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT II, sc IV [263-274], 261c; ACT III, sc IV [27-36], 264c 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, APPENDIX, XXVIII-XXIX, 450a 33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 91a-94a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, SECT 30-39, 31c-33c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VII, 44a-d; BK XIII, 96a; BK XIX, 145b 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 327c-328a; 337b; 350a-c; 352a-353c; 365c-366b / Social Contract, BK I, 393c-394b 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 27b-37b passim; 63a-b; 70a-71d; 74d-75b; BK III, 163c-164c; BK V, 383c-d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 22c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 451d-452a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 30, 102a-b 43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 462c-463a; 470d-471b 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 124d-125c; 313a-b; 389d-390a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 190-191, 66a-b; par 195, 66d-67a; par 203, 68a-c; ADDITIONS, 120, 136b-c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 193b-c; PART II, 267a-b 50 MARX: Capital, 16c-17a; 71d-72c; 81a-d; 88c; 112a-c; 147d-148b; 218d-219a; 251a-255a esp 253a-b, 254c; 261c-d; 282d-283c; 292c-296a esp 293c-294a 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 787d-788a

• 10c. Temperance and intemperance with respect to wealth: liberality, magnificence, miserliness, avarice OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 18:20-21; 20:17 / Deuteronomy, 5:21; 17:16-17 / II Samuel, 12:1-6—(D) II Kings, 12:1-6 / I Kings, 21—(D) III Kings, 21 / II Kings, 5:20-27—(D) IV Kings, 5:20-27 / Job, 31:16-23 / Psalms, 62:10; 112:5; 119:36—(D) Psalms, 61:11; 111:5; 118:36 / Proverbs, 1:10-19; 15:27; 23:4-5; 28:22; 30:8-9 / Ecclesiastes, 5:10-6:12—(D) Ecclesiastes, 5:9-6:11 / Isaiah, 33:15-17; 57:17—(D) Isaias, 33:15-17; 57:17 / Jeremiah, 22:13-19—(D) Jeremias, 22:13-19 / Ezekiel, 22:12-13,25-29—(D) Ezechiel, 22:12-13,25-29 / Amos, 2:6-7; 5:11-12 / Micah, 3:9-11; 7:2-3—(D) Micheas, 3:9-11; 7:2-3 / Habakkuk, 2:4-5,9—(D) Habacuc, 2:4-5,9 APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 1:1-8; 4:7-11; 5:18-19—(D) OT, Tobias, 1:1-8; 4:7-12; 5:24-25 / Wisdom of Solomon, 15:12—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 15:12 / Ecclesiasticus, 10:9; 11:11,18-19; 12:1-6; 14:3-10; 18:32-33; 20:30; 29:1-2,7-13,20-28; 31:1-11,23-24—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 10:9-10; 11:10,18-20; 12:1-4; 14:3-10; 18:32-33; 20:32; 29:1-2,10-17,26-34; 31:1-11,28-29 / Baruch, 3:16-19—(D) OT, Baruch, 3:16-19 / II Maccabees, 3-4—(D) OT, II Machabees, 3-4 NEW TESTAMENT: Luke, 6:34-35; 12:13-21 / Acts, 20:33-34 / I Corinthians, 5:10-11; 6:10 / Ephesians, 5:3 / I Timothy, 6:6-12 / Hebrews, 13:5 / James, 5:1-6 5 EURIPIDES: Hecuba [1206-1232], 363b 5 ARISTOPHANES: Wasps [653-724], 515c-516d / Plutus [144-197], 630d-631b 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK III, 105b-c; BK VI, 208d-209c; 211a-b; BK VII, 221c-222a; BK IX, 305d-306a 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK VI, 512c-513d 7 PLATO: Republic, BK VIII, 405c-408a / Critias, 485b-c / Laws, BK VIII, 733b-734a; BK IX, 751c-d 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 3 [1094b17-19], 339d; BK II, CH 7 [1107b9-21], 353a-b; BK IV, CH 1-2, 366b,d-370b; CH 3 [1124a13-b6], 371a-b; BK V, CH 2 [1130b24-28], 377d; BK VII, CH 4 [1147b24-1148a4], 398a-b / Politics, BK II, CH 5 [1263b22-26], 458b-d; CH 6 [1265b28-37], 460c-d; CH 7 [1266b24-1267a9], 462b-463b; CH 9 [1269b13-1270a14], 465d-466b; [1271b10-17], 467d; BK V, CH 9 [1310a22-25], 512c; BK VI, CH 7 [1321b35-42], 525a; BK VII, CH 5 [1326b26-38], 530d-531a / Athenian Constitution, CH 5, par 3, 554d-555a; CH 12, par 2, 557c / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 9 [1366b33-a22], 608d-609a 12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK III [59-78], 30d-31a; BK V [1113-1135], 75c-d 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK IV, CH 9, 237d-238a 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK VII, SECT 27, 281d; BK VIII, SECT 33, 288a 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b / Lycurgus-Numa, 62b-c / Coriolanus, 178c-179a / Aemilius Paulus, 218a-d; 223c-224a / Pelopidas, 233a-b / Marcus Cato, 276b,d-290d esp 287c-d / Aristides-Marcus Cato, 291b-292b / Lysander, 361a-d / Lysander-Sulla, 388b-c / Cimon, 394b-395a / Lucullus, 419a-420b / Crassus, 439a-c / Demetrius, 738c / Antony, 755d-758c / Marcus Brutus, 817d-818a 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK II, 31a-b; 35c-d; BK III, 57b-58d / Histories, BK I, 194d-195a 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK VI, par 16, 40a-c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 60, A 5, ANS, 53a-54d; Q 65, A 1, REP 1-2, 70b-72a; Q 84, A 1, 174b-175a 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, VII [1-96], 9c-10c; XI, 15a-16b esp [91-115], 16a-b; XVII [34-75], 24b-c; XIX, 26d-28b; XXIX [121-139], 44b-c; PURGATORY, XIX [70]-XXII [114], 82b-87c 22 CHAUCER: Tale of Melibeus, par 52-53, 424a-426a / Parson’s Tale, par 27, 512a-514b 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XVI, 22d-23c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 73a; 75a 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 62c-d; BK III, 133b-140b 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 110a-c; 122a-124d; 436c-439c; 462b-c 27 SHAKESPEARE: Timon of Athens, 393a-420d esp ACT I, sc II [197-211], 399b, ACT II, sc II, 400c-403b 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 221d-222c 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, APPENDIX, XXVIII-XXIX, 450a 33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 91a-94a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, SECT 30-39, 31c-33c 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART II, 53a-56a 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 68d; 87b-88a; 291d-292a; 362c-363a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK III, 10a; BK V, 19a-21d; BK VII, 44d-45b; BK XIX, 140c-d; BK XX, 146b-c; 152a-b; BK XXV, 211a-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 360b-361a / Social Contract, BK II, 405b-c; BK III, 411a-b; 412b-c; 421c-d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK II, 142d-151c; BK IV, 189d-190a; BK V, 346c-347d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 139b-140c passim; 155d-156a; 339d-340c; 510b-c; 660d-661c 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 194c-195a; 295c; 319b; 403a; 447b-c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 240, 76d / Philosophy of History, PART IV, 353b-c 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [5646-5665], 139a-b; [5767-5796], 141b-142b 50 MARX: Capital, 60d-62b; 72a-c; 292d-295d 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 25a-32a passim; BK V, 197b-c; BK VII, 275a-278c; 291a-292b; BK VII-VIII, 301b-303c; BK VIII, 329c-332a; BK X, 414c-416c; BK XI, 490a-493d; 500d-503a; BK XIII, 569c; 586c; BK XV, 633a-d; EPILOGUE I, 650d-652a; 664c-665a 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK VI, 164b-165a 53 JAMES: Psychology, 725b-726a

• 10d. The principles of justice with respect to wealth and property: fair wages and prices OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:15,17 / Leviticus, 19:11,35-36; 25:35-37 / Deuteronomy, 5:19,21; 24:10-15; 25:13-16; 27:17 / II Samuel, 12:1-6—(D) II Kings, 12:1-6 / I Kings, 21—(D) III Kings, 21 / II Kings, 5:20-27—(D) IV Kings, 5:20-27 / Nehemiah, 5:1-12—(D) II Esdras, 5:1-12 / Job, 24 / Proverbs, 1:10-19; 6:30-31; 11:1; 14:31; 16:11; 20:10; 21:6-7; 22:16,22-23,28; 23:10-11; 28:8,24; 30:8-9 / Isaiah, 3:14-15; 10:1-2—(D) Isaias, 3:14-15; 10:1-2 / Jeremiah, 17:11—(D) Jeremias, 17:11 / Ezekiel, 22:12-13,25-29; 45:9-12—(D) Ezechiel, 22:12-13,25-29; 45:9-12 / Amos, 2:6-7; 5:11-12; 8:1-7 esp 8:4-6 / Micah, 6:9-12—(D) Micheas, 6:9-12 / Zechariah, 5:3—(D) Zacharias, 5:3 APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 5:8,14; 20:25; 26:29; 27:2; 29:19; 34:18-22—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 5:10,16-17; 20:27; 26:28; 27:2; 29:25; 34:21-27 NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 10:10; 19:18 / Mark, 10:19 / Luke, 3:12-13; 10:7; 18:20 / Acts, 2:44-47; 4:31-5:11 / Romans, 13:9 / I Corinthians, 6:10 / Ephesians, 4:28 / I Timothy, 5:18 / II Timothy, 2:6 5 EURIPIDES: Helen [903-908], 306d-307a / Phoenician Maidens [528-567], 382c-d 5 ARISTOPHANES: Plutus, 629a-642d esp [76-111], 630a-b 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 73b-74d; 87a-b; BK IV, 158b-c; BK VI, 201d-202c; BK VII, 245b; BK VIII, 260d-261a 7 PLATO: Republic, BK I, 297a-c; BK II, 316a-319b; BK III-IV, 340c-343a; BK V, 364c-365d / Laws, BK VIII, 738c-743a; BK XI, 772d-775d / Seventh Letter, 814b-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK V, CH 2 [1130b3-17], 377c-378a; CH 4 [1132a11]-CH 5 [1133b29], 380b-381c; BK VIII, CH 9, 411d-412c; CH 13-14, 414d-416d passim; BK IX, CH 1, 416b,d-417c / Politics, BK I, CH 3-11, 446d-453d passim; BK II, CH 5, 458a-460a; CH 7, 461d-463c; BK V, CH 1 [1301a25-b2], 502b-c / Athenian Constitution, CH 12, 557b-558a 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK VIII, SECT 33, 288a 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b / Solon, 68d-70c / Poplicola-Solon, 87a / Crassus-Nicias, 455b,d 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK II, 31a-b / Histories, BK II, 236d-237a; BK IV, 286c-287a 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 21, A 1, 124b-125b; Q 98, A 1, REP 3, 516d-517c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 94, A 5, REP 3, 224d-225d; Q 95, A 4, ANS, 229b-230c; Q 105, A 2, ANS and REP 3-6, 309d-316a 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, XI, 15a-16b passim 22 CHAUCER: Tale of Melibeus, par 49-51, 422a-424a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 93b-c; 94d-95a; PART II, 124d-126a; 140d; 156b-157a 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III, 133b-134d 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 42a-b 27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT III, sc IV [26-36], 264c / Coriolanus, ACT I, sc I [1-167], 351a-353a 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 30c-d; 86b-c 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, APPENDIX, XVII, 448d 33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 91a-94a; 97b-98b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, SECT 30-39, 31c-33c; SECT 51, 35d-36a 36 SWIFT: Gulliver, PART IV, 154b-155b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK V, 19a-d; 23a-b; 29c; BK XII, 86c-d; BK XIII, 96a-b; BK XVIII, 128b; BK XX, 146b-d; BK XXIII, 199b-200a,c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 348b; 353b; 354a-355b; 360b-361a; 365b-366a / Political Economy, 375b-d; 377b-385a,c / Social Contract, BK III, 415b-417c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 13a-16a; 20b-23b; 27b-37b esp 33c; 52b-62a; 106c-107a; BK IV, 225d-228a; BK V, 309a-311c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 22c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 86d-87c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 424b-425a; 443b-d; 446a-b 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 2 [17-29], 11b; SECT 9 [273-275], 13d; ARTICLE VI [578-582], 16d; AMENDMENTS, V [645-648], 17c; VII, 17d; XIV, SECT 1 [748-750], 18d; SECT 4, 19a; XVI, 19b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 73, 218d-219b; NUMBER 79, 233c-d 43 MILL: Liberty, 309a-c; 322c-d / Representative Government, 335a-b; 366c-367a / Utilitarianism, 467b; 470a-471b passim; 472d-473c 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 124d-125c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART I, par 49, 24c-25a; PART III, par 236, 76a-c; par 241, 76d-77a; ADDITIONS, 29, 121c; 145, 140b; 148, 140c-d / Philosophy of History, PART IV, 353b-c 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 292a-297a 50 MARX: Capital, 13a-50a passim; 69a-84a,c; 89d-102b passim; 112c-113c; 150a-151a,c; 161b-162d; 171a-c; 256b-260c; 261d-262a; 264a-275c; 280c-286a; 296c-298a; 305c-307c; 324a-327b; 354b-c; 366a-368a; 376c-378d 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 423c-d; 425d-427b; 429b-c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 197b-c; 211a-213a; BK XIII, 572d-573b; BK XV, 633a-d; EPILOGUE I, 650d-652a 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK VI, 165b-166a 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 787d-788a esp 787d-788b [fn 3]

• 10e. The precepts of charity with respect to wealth

  • (1) Almsgiving to the needy and the impoverished OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 23:11 / Leviticus, 19:9-10; 23:22; 25:35-37 / Deuteronomy, 15:7-11; 24:19-22; 26:12-13 / Ruth, 2 / Job, 29:12-17; 31:16-23 / Psalms, 41:1-3—(D) Psalms, 40:2-4 / Proverbs, 14:21,31; 19:17; 21:13; 22:9; 28:27; 29:7 / Ecclesiastes, 11:1-2 / Isaiah, 58:1-12—(D) Isaias, 58:1-12 / Ezekiel, 18:4-21—(D) Ezechiel, 18:4-21 APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 1:1-8,16-17; 4:7-11; 12:8-10; 14:10-11—(D) OT, Tobias, 1:1-8,19-20; 4:7-12; 12:8-10; 14:10-11 / Ecclesiasticus, 3:30; 4:1-10; 7:10,32-33; 12:1-6; 14:13; 17:22; 29:1-2,7-13,20; 35:2; 40:24—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 3:33; 4:1-11; 7:10,36-37; 12:1-7; 14:13; 17:18; 29:1-2,10-17,26; 35:4; 40:24 NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:42; 6:1-4; 10:8,40-42; 19:16-22 / Mark, 10:17-22 / Luke, 3:11; 6:30-38; 11:41; 12:33-34; 14:12-14; 18:18-25 esp 18:22 / Acts, 10:1-4; 11:27-30; 20:35 / I Corinthians, 13:3 / II Corinthians, 8-9 / Galatians, 2:10 / I Timothy, 6:17-19 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 32, 540a-550a 22 CHAUCER: Parson’s Tale, par 91, 547a 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 222b 33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 91a-94a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XXIII, 199c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 198c-d; 392d-393a 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 233c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 443b-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 242, 77a-b; par 245, 77c-d / Philosophy of History, PART III, 307b-308a; PART IV, 322b-c; 353b-c
  • (2) The religious vow of poverty: voluntary poverty NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 8:19-20; 10:7-11; 19:16-30 esp 19:21, 19:27-30 / Mark, 6:7-11; 10:17-31 esp 10:21, 10:28-31 / Luke, 9:1-5; 10:1-8; 12:22-30,33; 18:18-30 esp 18:22, 18:28-30 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 64, A 1, REP 3, 66d-67c; PART II-II, Q 186, A 3, 652d-655b; AA 6-8, 657d-661a; PART III SUPPL, Q 89, A 2, 1006b-1007c 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XX [16-33], 83b-c; PARADISE, XI, 122a-123c 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 61b 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 338b 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 7d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 597a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART III, 307b-308a; PART IV, 333c; 340d-341a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 50b 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK IV, 85b-86b; BK VI, 164d-165a
  • (3) The choice between God and Mammon: the love of money as the root of all evil OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 23:8 / Deuteronomy, 16:19; 17:15-17 / Job, 31:24-28 / Psalms, 52:7—(D) Psalms, 51:9 / Proverbs, 17:23; 28:20; 30:8-9 / Jeremiah, 6:13; 8:10—(D) Jeremias, 6:13; 8:10 / Ezekiel, 22:25-29; 33:30-31—(D) Ezechiel, 22:25-29; 33:30-31 / Micah, 3:9-11; 7:2-3—(D) Micheas, 3:9-11; 7:2-3 APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 8:2; 10:9; 11:10,24-26; 14:1-10; 20:29; 27:1-2; 31:5-11—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 8:2-3; 10:9-10; 11:10,26-28; 14:1-10; 20:31; 27:1-2; 31:5-11 NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 6:19-24; 13:8-23; 16:26; 19:16-30 / Mark, 4:1-20; 8:36; 10:21-30 / Luke, 8:5-15; 9:25; 12:13-21; 16:1-13; 18:22-30 / I Corinthians, 6:10 / Ephesians, 5:5 / I Timothy, 6:6-19 esp 6:10 5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [289-301], 133d 7 PLATO: Laws, BK VII, 733b-d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 84, A 1, 174b-175a 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, VII [1-96], 9c-10c; XIX, 26d-28b; PURGATORY, XIX [70]-XXII [114], 82b-87c; PARADISE, XI, 122a-123c 22 CHAUCER: Prologue of Pardoner’s Tale [12,263-268], 372a / Tale of Melibeus, par 18, 408a; par 96-77, 430b-431a / Parson’s Tale, par 62-64, 530a-531a 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK I [670-692], 108a-b 33 PASCAL: Provincial Letters, 94a-97a 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 178b-d 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [5471-6171], 135a-151a esp [5987-6171], 146b-151a; [11,151-287], 271b-274b 50 MARX: Capital, 61d 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 50b 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 130b-132b; BK VI, 164b-166a

11. Economic determinism: the economic interpretation of history

50 MARX: Capital, 7c; 10b-11d; 25c-d; 35b-36c esp 36c-d [fn 2]; 86d [fn 4]; 181d [fn 3]; 187a-c; 239b-241a; 377c-378d esp 378c-d 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 416c-d; 421a; 421c-422c; 427a-b; 428b-d; 429b-c 54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 834c; 882c-883c

12. Economic progress: advances with respect to both efficiency and justice

6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 350d-351a 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XV, 111b-c; BK XVIII, 126c-d; 128a-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 352a-d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK II, 142d-151c; BK III, 163a-181a,c; BK IV, 190b-191a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 21c-23c; 498d; 633d-634a,c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 451d-452a; 452c-453a,c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 12, 56b-d 43 MILL: Representative Government, 335a-b / Utilitarianism, 452a-b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART II, 263b-d; PART IV, 323c-d; 335a-336c; 368c 50 MARX: Capital, 377c-378d 50 Marx-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 421d; 428d-429c; 434c-d 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 777a-c; 778b-779a; 787d-788a / New Introductory Lectures, 882c-884c esp 883d-884c

CROSS-REFERENCES

• For the treatment of the domestic economy, see FAMILY 3a-3b.
• For discussions bearing on the factors in productivity, see ART 6c, 9b; KNOWLEDGE 8a; SCIENCE 1b(2).
• For another consideration of the concept of value, see GOOD AND EVIL 4d; and for another discussion of the labor theory of value, see LABOR 6d.
• For the political aspect of commerce between states, see STATE 9a.
• For the issue concerning usury, see JUSTICE 8d.
• For other comparisons of the capitalist economy with the slave, the feudal, and the socialist economies, see LABOR 5a-5d.
• For the consideration of the nature of wages and of wages in relation to profits, see LABOR 6-6c; and for the theory of profit as derived from surplus value, see JUSTICE 8c(1)-8c(2).
• For the theory of property and property rights, see JUSTICE 6b, 8a; LABOR 7b; OLIGARCHY 4, 5a; and for the conception of slaves as chattel or property, see LABOR 5a; SLAVERY 4a.
• For the doctrine of common as opposed to individual goods, see GOOD AND EVIL 4e.
• For another discussion of the problem of poverty, see LABOR 7e.
• For the consideration of economics as a science, see PHILOSOPHY 2c; SCIENCE 3a.
• For the problem of governmental regulation of the economic process, see LIBERTY 2c.
• For the problem of the economic support of government, see GOVERNMENT 4.
• For the issue concerning the oligarchical conception of the political significance of wealth, see DEMOCRACY 4a(1)-4a(2); OLIGARCHY 4-5a.
• For the economic causes and effects of war, see WAR AND PEACE 5c.
• For other discussions of the conflict between economic classes, or the class war, see LABOR 7c-7c(3); OPPOSITION 5a; REVOLUTION 5a; STATE 5d(2); WAR AND PEACE 2c.
• For the general discussion of the order of goods, and for the relation of wealth to happiness and to other types of good, see GOOD AND EVIL 5-5d; HAPPINESS 2b(1); TEMPERANCE 2, 5b; VIRTUE AND VICE 6c.
• For other discussions of the distinction between necessities and luxuries, see NATURE 5b; NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 5c.
• For the consideration of the problems of economic justice, see JUSTICE 8-8d.
• For the discussion of the virtue of charity and the things which flow from charity, see LOVE 5b-5b(2); VIRTUE AND VICE 8g.
• For another statement of the economic theory of history, see HISTORY 4a(2); and for the examination of economic progress, see PROGRESS 3a-3c.

ADDITIONAL READINGS

Listed below are works not included in Great Books of the Western World, but relevant to the idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:

I. Works by authors represented in this collection. II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.

For the date, place and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.

I.

• F. BACON. “Of Riches,” “Of Usury,” in Essays
• AQUINAS. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK III, CH 131-135
  • Quaestiones Disputatae, De Malo, Q 13, A 4
  • Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 66, AA 1-2; PART II-II, Q 78
• LOCKE. Some Considerations of the Consequences of Lowering the Interest, and Raising the Value of Money
• FIELDING. Amelia
• HUME. Of the Balance of Trade
  • Of Commerce
  • Of Interest
  • Of Money
  • Of Refinement in the Arts
  • Of Taxes
• A. SMITH. Lectures on Justice, Police, Revenue and Arms
• J. S. MILL. Principles of Political Economy
  • Socialism
• DOSTOEVSKY. A Raw Youth
• MARX. The Poverty of Philosophy, CH I, 2 (3-4)
  • A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy
  • Critique of the Gotha Programme
• ENGELS. Herr Eugen Dühring’s Revolution in Science, PART II-III *