Chapter 86: SIN

INTRODUCTION

The sin of Satan and the sin of Adam are among the great mysteries of the Christian religion. Satan is highest among the angels, the first of God’s spiritual creatures. He is only less than God in the perfection of his nature. Adam is created with supernatural graces and gifts, his immortal body is completely responsive to his spirit, his appetite in all things is submissive to his reason, and his reason is turned toward God, according to the original justice which harmonized his faculties and the elements of his nature.

The only evil latent in either Satan or Adam would seem to reside in the privation of infinite being, power, and knowledge. But this is not a moral evil in them; it is neither a sin nor a predisposition to sin. Hence the only cause of their sinning, if God himself does not predestine them to sin, must be a free choice on their part between good and evil. If God positively predestines them to sin, then they would seem to be without responsibility, and so without sin. If they are not predetermined to evil—if, except for the weakness of being finite, they are without positive blemish—how does the conflict arise in them which opens the choice between good and evil and impels them, almost against the inclination of their natures, away from good and toward evil?

In Milton’s Paradise Lost, God says of Adam: “I made him just and right, sufficient to have stood, though free to fall.” Of Satan and fallen angels, as well as of Adam, God observes:

They therefore as to right belong’d,

So were created, nor can justly accuse

Thir maker, or thir making, or thir Fate;

As if Predestination over-rul’d

Their will, dispos’d by absolute Decree

Of high foreknowledge; they themselves decreed

Thir own revolt, not I: if I foreknew,

Foreknowledge had no influence on their fault,

Which had no less prov’d certain unforeknown.

Yet there is a difference between Adam and Satan. The fallen angels “by their own suggestion fell, self-tempted, self-deprav’d.” Satan, having sinned, becomes man’s tempter. “Man falls deceiv’d by the other first: Man therefore shall find grace, the other none.”

As Satan approaches the Garden of Eden to work his will on man, he contemplates his plight. He does not deny his sin, he does not repent it, he does not seem fully to understand it. Thus Milton has him speak:

O thou that with surpassing Glory crowned,

Look’st from thy sole Dominion like the God

Of this new World; at whose sight all the Starrs

Hide thir diminisht heads; to thee I call,

But with no friendly voice, and add thy name

O Sun, to tell thee how I hate thy beams

That bring to my remembrance from what state

I fell, how glorious once above thy Spheare;

Till Pride and worse Ambition threw me down

Warring in Heav’n against Heav’ns matchless King;

Ah wherefore! he deserv’d no such return

From me, whom he created what I was

In that bright eminence, and with his good

Upbraided none; nor was his service hard.

What could be less than to afford him praise,

The easiest recompense, and pay him thanks,

How due! yet all his good prov’d ill in me,

And wrought but malice; lifted up so high

I sdein’d subjection, and thought one step higher

Would set me highest, and in a moment quit

The debt immense of endless gratitude,

So burthensome, still paying, still to owe…

O had his powerful Destiny ordain’d

Me some inferior Angel, I had stood

Then happie; no unbounded hope had rais’d

Ambition. Yet why not? some other Power

As great might have aspir’d, and me through mean

Drawn to his part; but other Powers as great

Fell not, but stand unshak’n, from within

Or from without, to all temptations arm’d.

Hads’t thou the same free Will and Power to stand?

Thou hads’t: whom has thou then or what to accuse,

But Heav’ns free Love, dealt equally to all?

Be then his Love accurst, since love or hate

To me alike, it deals eternal woe.

Nay cursed be thou; since against his, thy will

Chose freely what it now so justly rues.

Me miserable! which way shall I flie

Infinite wrath, and infinite despaire?

Which way I flie is Hell; my self am Hell;

And in the lowest deep a lower deep

Still threatning to devour me opens wide,

To which the Hell I suffer seems a Heav’n.

O then at last relent: is there no place

Left for Repentance, nor for Pardon left?

None left but by submission; and that word

Disdain forbids me, and my dread of shame

Among the spirits beneath, whom I seduc’d

With other promises and other vaunts

Than to submit, boasting I could subdue

Th’ Omnipotent.

Before Satan approaches Eve, Adam reminds her of their debt of obedience, saying that God requires:

From us no other service than to keep

This one, this easie charge, of all the Trees

In Paradise that beare delicious fruit

So various, not to taste that onely Tree

Of Knowledge, planted by the Tree of Life.

So neer grows Death to Life, what ere Death is,

Some dreadful thing no doubt; for well thou knowst

God hath pronounc’d it death to taste that Tree,

The only sign of our obedience left

Among so many signes of power and rule

Conferrd upon us, and Dominion giv’n

Over all other Creatures that possesse

Earth, Aire, and Sea. Then let us not think hard

One easie prohibition, who enjoy

Free leave so large to all things else, and choice

Unlimited of manifold delights.

The temptation to disobey first moves Eve in a dream in which the apparition of an angel speaks of the forbidden fruit:

Forbidd’n here, it seems, as onely fit

For Gods, yet able to make Gods of Men;

And why not Gods of Men, since good, the more

Communicated, more abundant growes,

The Author not impair’d, but honourd more?

“Here, happie Creature,” the vision says to her,

Happier thou mayst be, worthier canst not be:

Taste this, and be henceforth among the Gods

Thy self a Goddess, not to Earth confind,

But sometimes in the Air, as wee, sometimes

Ascend to Heav’n, by merit thine, and see

What life the Gods live there, and such live thou.

Later when Satan in the guise of the Serpent actually addresses Eve, he argues in the same vein, that as he, by tasting of this fruit, speaks as a man, so Eve and Adam, if they too partake, “shall be as Gods, knowing both Good and Evil as they know.” Eve succumbs and, as Milton tells the story, Adam, knowing fully the evil of his act, joins Eve in disobedience, not from envy of the gods, but out of love for her, willing to die because unwilling to live without her.

Willing “to incurr divine displeasure for her sake, or Death.”

… he scrupl’d not to eat

Against his better knowledge, not deceav’d,

But fondly overcome with Femal charm.

Earth trembled from her entrails, as again

In pangs, and Nature gave a second groan,

Skie lowr’d, and muttering Thunder, som sad drops

Wept at compleating of the mortal Sin

Original.

In the poet’s expansion of the third chapter of Genesis, the basic elements in the Judaeo-Christian conception of sin seem to be plainly accented: the pride and envy which move Satan and Eve, the disobedience which results from the disorder of Adam’s loving Eve more than he loves God. In the Divine Comedy, another great poem of sin and salvation, Adam speaks to Dante in Paradise and tells him that “the tasting of the tree was not by itself the cause of so great an exile, but only the overpassing of the bound.” Earlier Beatrice explains why, in order to redeem man from sin, the Word of God assumed human nature—“the nature which has estranged itself from its Maker.” She tells Dante that “this nature, thus united with its Maker, was pure and good such as it was created; but by itself it had been banished from Paradise, because it turned aside from the way of truth and from its own life.” Man can fall from his nobility by “sin alone… which disfranchises him, and makes him unlike the Supreme Good, so that he is little illumined by Its light; and to his dignity he never returns, unless where fault empties, he fills up with just penalties against evil delight.”

In both the pagan and the Christian conceptions of sin, man’s pride and his disobedience of divine commandment are usually connected with the very notion of sin. The heroes of the Greek tragedies, exhibiting the tragic fault of pride, seem to forget that, though they strive with gods, they are only men, subject to laws they cannot disobey without catastrophe. In the Iliad, Phoenix cautions Achilles to “battle with your pride and beat it; cherish not your anger for ever; the might and majesty of heaven are more than ours, but even heaven may be appeased; and if a man has sinned he prays the gods, and reconciles them to himself by his piteous cries.”

In pride and disobedience we find the deep disorder of love which lies at the heart of sin. Pride is self-love in excess of what the self deserves. Disobedience, as in the case of Milton’s Adam, may be prompted by a love which, too, exceeds the worth of the object loved. The measure of that worth, or the bounds put upon the love of self or other, is set by the Supreme Good which, ordering all other goods, should also order our loves in proportion to their goodness.

This seems to be the central insight of the Divine Comedy. It is given a summary statement in Purgatory, where Virgil explains how love is the root both of virtue and of sin. “Neither Creator nor creature,” he says to Dante, “was ever without love, either natural or of the mind, and this thou knowest. The natural is always without error; but the other may err either through an evil object, or through little or too much vigor. While love is directed on the primal goods, and with due measure on the secondary, it cannot be the cause of ill delight. But when it is bent to evil, or runs to good with more zeal, or with less, than it ought, against the Creator his own creature is working. Hence thou canst comprehend that love is of necessity the seed in you of every virtue, and of every action that deserves punishment.”

Dostoevsky offers us further thoughts concerning the relation of love and sin. In The Brothers Karamazov, Father Zossima makes lack of love the punishment as well as the substance of sin. To those who ask, “What is Hell?” Father Zossima replies: “I maintain that it is the suffering of being unable to love… They talk of hell fire in the material sense. I don’t go into that mystery and I shun it. But I think if there were fire in the material sense, they would be glad of it, for, I imagine, that in material agony, their still greater spiritual agony would be forgotten for a moment… Oh, there are some who remain proud and fierce even in hell, in spite of their certain knowledge and contemplation of the absolute truth; there are some fearful ones who have given themselves over to Satan and his proud spirit entirely. For such, hell is voluntary and ever consuming; they are tortured by their own choice. For they have cursed themselves, cursing God and life.”

To avoid sin, the only positive commandment, according to Father Zossima, is to love in accordance with God’s love. “Love a man even in his sin,” he counsels, “for that is the semblance of Divine Love and is the highest love on earth… And let not the sin of men confound you in your doings. Fear not that it will wear away your work and hinder its being accomplished. There is only one means of salvation; then take unto yourself, and make yourself responsible for, all men’s sins; that is the truth, you know, friends, for as soon as you sincerely make yourself responsible for everything and for all men, you will see at once that it is really so, and you are to blame for everyone and for all things. But throwing your own indolence and impotence on others, you will end by sharing the pride of Satan and murmuring against God. Of the pride of Satan, what I think is this: it is hard for us on earth to comprehend it, and therefore it is so easy to fall into error and to share it, even imagining that we are doing something grand and fine.”

In the disorder of love which leads to sin, sin is itself enjoyed for its own sake, and the disobedient act is pleasant because it is forbidden. In that also there is the pride of supposing one’s self to be a law unto one’s self. In his Confessions, concerned most immediately with his own sinfulness, Augustine reflects upon the pears he stole in his youth, not, as he says, from “any desire to enjoy the things I stole, but only the stealing of them and the sin.” He asks himself: “What was it then that in my wretched folly I loved in you, O theft of mine, deed wrought in that dark night when I was sixteen?” He had no need of the pears. “Once I had gathered them,” he says, “I threw them away, tasting only my own sin and savouring that with delight; for if I took so much as a bite of any one of those pears, it was the sin that sweetened it.”

He keeps on asking himself what it was that attracted him in that theft, what it was that he enjoyed in that childish act of stealing. “Perhaps,” he finally answers, “it was the thrill of acting against Your law—at least in appearance, since I had no power to do so in fact, the delight a prisoner might have in making some small gesture of liberty—getting a deceptive sense of omnipotence from doing something forbidden without immediate punishment. I was that slave, who fled from his Lord and pursued his Lord’s shadow. O rottenness, O monstrousness of life and abyss of death! Could you find pleasure only in what was forbidden, and only because it was forbidden?”

In the pagan and Judaeo-Christian conceptions of sin, the fundamental meaning seems to depend upon the relation of man to the gods or to God, whether that itself be considered in terms of law or love. The vicious act may be conceived as one which is contrary to nature or reason. The criminal act may be conceived as a violation of the law of man, injurious to the welfare of the state or to its members. Both may involve the notions of responsibility and fault. Both may involve evil and wrongdoing. But unless the act transgresses the law of God, it is not sinful. The divine law which is transgressed may be the natural law that God instills in human reason, but the act is sinful if the person who commits the act turns away from God to the worship or love of other things.

To disbelieve in God, in divine law and divine punishment, is also to disbelieve in sin—at least in the sense in which religious men have distinguished between saints and sinners, between the righteous and the wicked in the eyes of God. “There are only two kinds of men,” writes Pascal: “the righteous who believe themselves sinners; the rest, sinners, who believe themselves righteous.”

Those who reject the religious meaning of sin do not deny the wide prevalence of a sense of sin, nor do they deny that many men suffer remorse for transgressions which they suppose to be evil in God’s eyes; but, with Freud, they interpret these feelings of guilt in terms of natural causes. They hold that the person who is tormented by conscience suffers from an illusion concerning the true nature of his guilt. When the sense of sin is intensely active and is, in addition, apparently unexplained by the character and conduct of the person, the guilt-feelings, according to the Freudian view, take on the attributes of pathological distortion and become part of the symptomology of a neurosis. There is no question about the sincerity of the person who is thus agonized, but only about the true causes of the agony.

“When one asks how a sense of guilt arises in anyone,” Freud says, “one is told something one cannot dispute: people feel guilty (pious people call it ‘sinful’) when they have done something they know to be ‘bad.’ But then one sees how little this answer tells one.” What accounts for the judgment a man makes of himself as good or bad? Freud’s answer is that “what is bad is, to begin with, whatever causes one to be threatened with a loss of love; because of the dread of this loss, one must desist from it. That is why it makes little difference whether one has already committed the bad deed or only intends to do so.”

The external authority of the father and, through him, of society becomes, according to Freud, “internalized by the development of a super-ego. The manifestations of conscience are then raised to a new level; to be strict one should not call them conscience and sense of guilt before this… At this second stage of development, conscience exhibits a peculiarity which was absent in the first… That is, the more righteous a man is, the stricter and more suspicious will his conscience be, so that ultimately it is precisely those people who have carried holiness farthest who reproach themselves with the deepest sinfulness… A relatively strict and vigilant conscience is the very sign of a virtuous man, and though saints may proclaim themselves sinners, they are not so wrong, in view of the temptations of instinctual gratifications to which they are peculiarly liable—since, as we know, temptations do but increase under constant privation, whereas they subside, at any rate, temporarily, if they are sometimes gratified.”

Freud applies his theory of the origin of feelings of guilt (in “the dread of authority” first and later in “the dread of the super-ego,”) to the religious sense of sin. “The people of Israel,” he writes, “believed themselves to be God’s favorite child, and when the great Father hurled visitation after visitation upon them, it still never shook them in this belief or caused them to doubt His power and His justice; they proceeded instead to bring their prophets into the world to declare their sinfulness to them, and out of their sense of guilt they constructed the stringent commandments of their priestly religion.”

In general, Freud thinks, the great religions “have never overlooked the part played by the sense of guilt in civilization. What is more, they come forward with a claim… to save mankind from this sense of guilt which they call sin. We have drawn our conclusion from the way in which in Christianity this salvation is won—the sacrificial death of one who therewith takes the whole of the common guilt of all upon himself, about the occasion on which this primal sense of guilt was first acquired.” The conclusion referred to is developed in two of Freud’s works which are devoted to the consideration of religion and sin—The Future of an Illusion and Totem and Taboo. In the latter of these books, Freud tells us, he had first “expressed a suspicion that perhaps the sense of guilt in mankind as a whole, which is the ultimate source of religion and morality, was acquired in the beginning of history through the Oedipus complex.”

Other writers, who approach the problem of sin in legalistic rather than psychological terms, either make no distinction between crime and sin or make the distinction without referring to God. Spinoza, for example, prefaces his explanation of the meanings of “praise and blame, merit and crime,” with a discussion of the difference between “the natural and civil state of man.” In a state of nature, he says, no one is “bound by any law to obey any one but himself. Hence in a natural state sin cannot be conceived, but only in a civil state, where it is decided by universal consent what is good and what is evil, and where everyone is bound to obey the State. Sin, therefore, is nothing but disobedience, which is punished by the law of the State alone.”

Though Hobbes does not identify crime and sin, his distinction between them does not seem to be based on the contrast between the civil law and the divine law, unless the latter is equated with the law of nature. “A crime is a sin,” he writes, “consisting in the committing (by deed or word) of that which the law forbiddeth, or the omission of that which it hath commanded. So that every crime is a sin, but not every sin a crime. To intend to steal or kill is a sin, though it never appear in word or fact, for God that seeth the thoughts of man, can lay it to his charge; but till it appear by something done, or said, by which the intention may be argued by a human judge, it hath not the name of crime.

“From this relation of sin to the law,” Hobbes continues, “and of crime to the civil law, may be inferred, first, that where law ceaseth, sin ceaseth. But because the law of nature is eternal, violation of covenants, ingratitude, arrogance, and all facts contrary to any moral virtue, can never cease to be sin. Secondly, that the civil law ceasing, crimes cease; for there being no other law remaining, but that of nature, there is no place for accusation; every man being his own judge, and accused only by his own conscience, and cleared by the uprightness of his own intention. When therefore his intention is right, his fact is no sin; if otherwise, his fact is sin, but not crime.”

The more strictly religious conception of sin seems to be exemplified by Pascal’s remark that “all that God does not permit is forbidden” and that “sins are forbidden by the general declaration that God has made, that He did not allow them.” Whatever God does not permit, “we ought to regard as sin,” for “the absence of God’s will, which is all goodness and all justice, renders it unjust and wrong.”

With the precision of a theologian in these matters, Aquinas defines the peculiar type of evil which is sin. “Evil,” he writes, “is more comprehensive than sin, as also is good than right… Now in those things that are done by the will, the proximate rule is the human reason, while the supreme rule is the eternal law. When, therefore, a human act tends to the end according to the order of reason and of the eternal law, then that act is right; but when it turns aside from that rectitude, then it is said to be a sin.” Elsewhere he says that “every created will has rectitude of act only so far as it is regulated according to the divine will… Thus only in the divine will can there be no sin, whereas in the will of every creature, considered according to its nature, there can be sin.”

The theological discussion of sin involves a tremendous range of topics, and problems as significant as they are subtle. The dogma of original sin, for example, raises questions not only about the cause and character of Adam’s transgression, but also about the punishment which is visited upon the children of Adam in perpetuity, and about the conditions under which man can be reclaimed from his bondage to sin, both original and actual or personal.

There seems to be some resemblance between the Christian doctrine that Adam’s sin merits a penalty to be paid by all subsequent generations, and the Jewish doctrine of the collective responsibility of the people of Israel for the sins of their ancestors, even unto the third and fourth generation. But the points of difference appear to be more fundamental than the similarity.

In the first place, the sins of the fathers from which later generations suffer are the individual sins of men whose natures are predisposed to sin, as Adam’s, before the fall, was not. In the second place, the punishment is visited not upon the whole human race, but only upon the Chosen People, and in the form of temporal scourges rather than in a corruption of human nature itself.

Furthermore, the Hebrew prophet Ezekiel questions the justice of collective responsibility. “What mean ye,” he asks,

that ye use this proverb concerning the land of Israel, saying, The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children’s teeth are set on edge?

As I live, saith the Lord God, ye shall not have occasion any more to use this proverb in Israel…

The soul that sinneth, it shall die. The son shall not bear the iniquity of the father, neither shall the father bear the iniquity of the son: the righteousness of the righteous shall be upon him, and the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon him.

But if the wicked will turn from all his sins that he hath committed, and keep all my statutes, and do that which is lawful and right, he shall surely live, he shall not die.

All his transgressions that he hath committed, they shall not be mentioned unto him: in his righteousness that he hath done he shall live.

Have I any pleasure at all that the wicked should die? saith the Lord God: and not that he should return from his ways, and live?

But when the righteous turneth away from his righteousness, and committeth iniquity, and doeth according to all the abominations that the wicked man doeth, shall he live? All his righteousness that he hath done shall not be mentioned: in his trespass that he hath trespassed, and in his sin that he hath sinned, in them shall he die.

According to Christian teaching, the justice of individual punishment for the sins which individuals commit in their own lifetime does not apply to the penalty which all men must pay for the sin of Adam. “Wherefore, as by one man sin entered into the world,” St. Paul writes to the Romans,

and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that all have sinned:

(For until the law sin was in the world: but sin is not imputed when there is no law.

Nevertheless, death reigned from Adam to Moses, even over them that had not sinned after the similitude of Adam’s transgression, who is the figure of him that was to come.

But not as the offence, so also is the free gift. For if through the offence of one many be dead, much more the grace of God, and the gift by grace, which is by one man, Jesus Christ, hath abounded unto many.

And not as it was by one that sinned, so is the gift: for the judgment was by one to condemnation, but the free gift is of many offences unto justification.

For if by one man’s offence death reigned by one; much more they which receive abundance of grace and of the gift of righteousness shall reign in life by one, Jesus Christ.)

Therefore as by the offence of one judgment came upon all men to condemnation; even so by the righteousness of one the free gift came upon all men unto justification of life.

For as by one man’s disobedience many were made sinners, so by the obedience of one shall many be made righteous.

The Christian doctrine of original sin thus appears to be closely connected with the Christian doctrine of the need for a divine saviour—God Himself become man to redeem man from the taint of sin, and through the sacraments He instituted to provide the instruments of healing grace and the means of repentance for, and absolution from, both original sin and the individual’s own personal sins.

The understanding of the sacraments; the theory of grace in relation to the original and fallen nature of man; the issue concerning grace and good works, or God’s justification and man’s merit, in the achievement of sanctity and salvation; the distinction between the everlasting perdition of Hell and the expiatory punishments of Purgatory—all these fundamental theological problems are involved in the consideration of sin and its consequences, both temporal and eternal.

Some of these problems are discussed in the chapters on MAN, ANGEL, IMMORTALITY, and PUNISHMENT. Other matters, such as the classification of sins according to the distinction between spiritual and carnal, mortal and venial, and the enumeration of the various species of both mortal and venial sin in the order of their gravity, are problems of moral theology. Though they belong primarily to this chapter, they are also related to the classification of virtues and vices, especially to the theory of the theological virtues; and among the theological virtues, especially to charity, which is the principle of sanctity, even as pride is the principle of sin.

Of all points in the consideration of sin, the distinction between original and acquired sin is perhaps the most important, not only because inherited sinfulness is conceived as the predisposing cause of all other sins, but also because the human nature corrupted by sin is conceived as fallen below the perfection of a purely natural man as well as below the state of grace in which Adam was created. As Adam had gifts which made him superior to the natural man—immortality, infused knowledge and freedom from error, immunity from concupiscence, exemption from labor and servility—so the children of Adam, cast out of Eden, have ingrained weaknesses which make them unable to achieve the goods or attain the ends proportionate to their human nature.

According to some theologians, the purely natural man, without either the gifts of grace or the wounds of sin, has never existed. It is this mystery of man, having natural aspirations which exceed the weakened powers of his fallen nature, that Pascal seems to contemplate in all his observations on “the greatness and wretchedness of man”—the “astonishing contradictions” which he thinks only the Christian religion explains. In the state in which men now are, he writes, “there remains to them some feeble instinct of the happiness of their former state; and they are plunged in the evils of their blindness and their lust, which have become their second nature.”

“As the result of original justice,” Aquinas writes, “the reason had perfect hold over the lower parts of the soul, while reason itself was perfected by God in being subject to Him. Now this same original justice was forfeited by the sin of our first parent… so that all the powers of the soul are left, as it were, destitute of their proper order, whereby they are naturally directed to virtue. This destitution is called a wounding of nature… In so far as the reason is deprived of its order to the true, there is the wound of ignorance; in so far as the will is deprived of its order to the good, there is the wound of malice; in so far as the irascible is deprived of its order to the arduous, there is the wound of weakness; and in so far as the concupiscible is deprived of its order to the delectable as moderated by reason, there is the wound of concupiscence. Accordingly, these are the four wounds inflicted on the whole of human nature as a result of our first parent’s sin.”

Aquinas rejects the supposition that “the entire good of human nature can be destroyed by sin,” arguing that what sin diminishes is “the natural inclination to virtue, which is befitting to man from the very fact that he is a rational being.” But “sin cannot entirely take away from man the fact that he is a rational being, for then he would no longer be capable of sin.”

Other theologians take a more extreme view than Aquinas and Augustine. They attribute depravity rather than weakness to human nature as a consequence of original sin. “On the Calvinistic theory,” Mill writes, “the one great offense of man is self-will.” Under the maxim that “whatever is not a duty, is a sin,” men are left with no choice. “Human nature being radically corrupt,” Mill continues, “there is no redemption for any one until human nature is killed within him.” But, according to Augustine and Aquinas, original sin does not deprive the individual man entirely of the power to establish his worth, though it puts him in need of God’s help to be worthy of salvation. Between the one extreme which holds that men can be saved by God’s grace alone, and the other extreme which supposes that men can win salvation by the merit of their own good works, Augustine and Aquinas try to take the middle position, according to which neither grace without good works nor good works without grace will avail.

OUTLINE OF TOPICS

1. The nature of sin: violation of divine law; disorder in man’s relation to God
2. The kinds and degrees of sin
   • 2a. The distinction between original and actual sin
   • 2b. The distinction between spiritual and carnal sin
   • 2c. The distinction between mortal and venial sin
     • (1) The classification and order of mortal sins
     • (2) The classification and order of venial sins
3. The doctrine of original sin
   • 3a. The condition of Adam before sin: his supernatural state of grace; his preternatural gifts
   • 3b. The sin of Adam
   • 3c. The nature of fallen man in consequence of Adam’s sin
   • 3d. The need for a mediator between God and man to atone for original sin
   • 3e. The remission of sin: baptism; the state of the unbaptized
4. Actual or personal sin
   • 4a. The relation of original sin to actual sin
   • 4b. The causes and occasions of actual sin
   • 4c. Pride as the principle of sin: the tragic fault of hybris
   • 4d. The consequences of actual sin: the loss of charity and grace
   • 4e. The prevention and purging of sin: purification by sacrifice; the sacrament of penance; contrition, confession, and absolution
5. The remorse of conscience and feelings of guilt: the psychogenesis and pathological expression of the sense of sin
6. Guilt and the punishment of sin
   • 6a. Man’s freedom in relation to responsibility and guilt for sin: divine predestination or election
   • 6b. Collective responsibility for sin: the sins of the fathers
   • 6c. The temporal punishment of sin: divine scourges
   • 6d. The eternal punishment of sin: the everlasting perdition of the unrepentant in Hell
   • 6e. The purifying punishments of Purgatory
7. Grace and good works in relation to salvation from sin

REFERENCES

To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 Homer: Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d, the number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the passage is in section d of page 12.

Page Sections: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 James: Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of the page. For example, in 7 Plato: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.

Author’s Divisions: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as part, BK, CH, SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in certain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d.

Bible References: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTAMENT: Nehemiah, 7:45—(D) II Esdras, 7:46.

Symbols: The abbreviation “esp” calls the reader’s attention to one or more especially relevant parts of a whole reference; “passim” signifies that the topic is discussed intermittently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.

For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.

1. The nature of sin: violation of divine law; disorder in man’s relation to God

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:15-17; 3 esp 3:1-13; 4:7 / Exodus, 20:1-17 / Deuteronomy, 5:6-21 / Job, 35:6 / Psalms, 36:1-4—(D) Psalms, 35:1-5 / Isaiah, 59:2—(D) Isaias, 59:2

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 4:1-11 / Luke, 4:1-13 / John, 8:34; 9:31; 15:22 / Romans, 5:13,19-21; 6:7-14,23; 7:7-11; 14:23 / I Corinthians, 15:55-56 / James, 1:15; 4:17 / I John, 3:4-8; 5:17

4 Homer: Iliad, BK I [91-147] 4a-c; BK IX [485-526] 62a-b

5 Aeschylus: Prometheus Bound 40a-51d / Agamemnon [355-398] 55d-56b; [905-957] 61c-62b / Eumenides [490-565] 86b-87a

5 Sophocles: Antigone 131a-142d / Ajax 143a-155a,c

5 Euripides: Hippolytus [1-57] 225a-c / Electra [907-956] 335b-d / Bacchantes 340a-352a,c esp [1302-1351] 351a-c / Iphigenia at Aulis [1146-1210] 435c-436a

12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK IX, SECT 1 291a-c

17 Plotinus: Third Ennead, TR II, CH 10 88a-b

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK II, par 9-14 10d-12b; BK III, par 15-17 17a-18a; BK V, par 2 27b-c; BK VII, par 22 50a / City of God, BK XI, CH 3 343d-344b; BK XIV, CH 3-4, 378a-379a; CH 10-15 385b-390a; BK XV, CH 22 416a-c

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 63 325b-333d; PART I-II, Q 1, A 7, REP 1 614c-615a; Q 21, A 1 717a-d; A 4 719d-720a,c; Q 34, A 1, ANS 768c-769d

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 71 105c-111b; Q 72, A 2, ANS 112b-113a; A 4 114a-115a; A 5, ANS 115a-116b; Q 73, A 1 119c-120c; Q 74 128d-137c; Q 91, A 4, ANS 210c-211c; PART III, Q 8, AA 7-8 761d-763b

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, III [1-18] 4a-b; XI 15a-16b; XXIX [55-132] 40a-41a; PURGATORY, XVI [52-114] 77b-78a; XVII [91]-XVIII [75] 79b-80c; XXX-XXXI 99b-102b esp XXX [96]-XXXI [63] 100b-101c; PARADISE, I [94-142] 107b-d; VII [16-120] 115b-116b

22 Chaucer: Parson’s Tale, par 19, 507b-508a; par 21 509a-b; par 30, 516a; par 34 519b; par 35-43, 520b-524a passim; par 53, 526b; par 63 530a-b; par 70, 534b; par 74, 535b; par 85 543a

23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 85d; PART II, 138d-139c; 142c-d; 149b-c

25 Montaigne: Essays, 233b

30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 80d-81a; 100d

31 Descartes: Meditations, 73d-74a / Objections and Replies, 125d-126a

31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2 435b-436a

32 Milton: Paradise Lost 93a-333a esp BK I [128-168] 96a-97a, [209-220] 98a, BK II [648-666] 125b, [746-814] 127b-129a, BK III [1-415] 135b-144b, BK IV [32-113] 153a-155a, BK V [600-904] 188b-195a, BK VI [262-295] 202a-b, BK VII [519-549] 228b-229a, BK VIII [316-337] 239a-b, BK IX [679-779] 262a-264a / Areopagitica, 395a

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 19b; 24b-26b; 45a-b; 78b-80b / Pensées, 668 294b-295a

35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXVIII, SECT 7-8 229d-230a

41 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 93c

43 Mill: Liberty, 296b-d

46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, PART III, 304c-306a; PART IV, 354a-c

48 Melville: Moby Dick, 30a-36b esp 31a

51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 689b

52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK III, 65a-67a; BK V, 132b-c; BK VI, 165b-c

2. The kinds and degrees of sin

OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:1-17 / Deuteronomy, 5:6-21; 25:2

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 4:1-11; 5:22; 12:31-32 / Mark, 3:29 / Luke, 4:1-13; 12:10,47-48 / John, 19:11 / II Corinthians, 8:10-12 / Galatians, 5:19-21 / I Timothy, 1:13 / Hebrews, 10:26-29 / James, 2:10 / I John, 2:16; 5:16-17

12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK IX, SECT 1 291a-c

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK II, par 9-16 10d-12d; BK III, par 16 17c-d; BK X, par 41-64 81c-87d

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, QQ 72-73 111b-128d; Q 100, AA 4-6 253d-258c

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL 1a-52d esp XI 15a-16b; PURGATORY 53a-105d esp XVII [91-139] 79b-d

22 Chaucer: Parson’s Tale 495a-550a

23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART IV, 257c-258a

31 Descartes: Objections and Replies, 125d-126a

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters 1a-167b passim, esp 27a-127a

40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 198d; 220c-221b

44 Boswell: Johnson, 196b-c

2a. The distinction between original and actual sin

NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 5:14-16

18 Augustine: City of God, BK XIV, CH 1 376b,d-377a; CH 3 378a-d

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 81, A 1, ANS 163a-164d; A 2 164d-165c; A 3, ANS 165d-166b; Q 82, A 1, REP 2 168a-d; PART III, Q 1, A 4, ANS 706a-707a

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVI [52-114] 77b-78a

22 Chaucer: Parson’s Tale, par 18, 507b

2b. The distinction between spiritual and carnal sin

OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:1-17 / Deuteronomy, 5:6-21

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 4:1-11 / Luke, 4:1-13 / II Corinthians, 7:1 / I John, 2:16

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK III, par 16 17c-d; BK V, par 4 27d-28a; BK X, par 41-64 81c-87d esp par 41 81c-d, par 54 85a-b / City of God, BK XIV, CH 2-3 377a-378d / Christian Doctrine, BK III, CH 2, 658b-c

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 63, A 2 326c-327b

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 72, A 2 112b-113a; Q 73, A 5 123a-d; Q 77, A 5 149a-150a; Q 100, A 4, ANS 253d-255a

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, V [25-45] 7b-c; PURGATORY, XVII [76-139] 79b-d

22 Chaucer: Parson’s Tale, par 18, 507b

2c. The distinction between mortal and venial sin

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 12:31-32 / I John, 5:16-17

18 Augustine: City of God, BK XXI, CH 24, 577d-578a

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 72, A 5 115a-116b; Q 74, A 4 131a-d; AA 8-10 134b-137c; Q 77, A 8 151c-152a; Q 88 192d-198d; Q 89, A 1 199a-c; PART II-II, Q 186, A 9 661a-662b

22 Chaucer: Parson’s Tale, par 21 509a-b

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 66a-b

51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK XI, 477d

2c(1) The classification and order of mortal sins

OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 20:1-17 / Deuteronomy, 5:6-21

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 63, A 2, REP 2 64b-65a; Q 84 174b-178a; Q 100, AA 4-6 253d-258c; PART II-II, QQ 10-15 426c-454c; QQ 20-21 474d-480d; QQ 34-43 558d-592d; Q 46 603c-605a,c

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, IX [52-63] 12d-13a; XI 15a-16b; PURGATORY, XVII [91-139] 79b-d

22 Chaucer: Summoner’s Tale [7587-7670] 290a-291b / Pardoner’s Tale [12,397-593] 374a-377b / Parson’s Tale, par 23-84 510b-542b

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 33b-34a; 67a; 118b-119b; 140a

42 Kant: Science of Right, 440b-441b

2c(2) The classification and order of venial sins

NEW TESTAMENT: I Corinthians, 3:12-15

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 89, A 2 199c-200d

22 Chaucer: Parson’s Tale, par 22 509b-510b

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 67b; 118a-119b

3. The doctrine of original sin

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:16-17; 3 esp 3:17-19

APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 2:23-24—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 2:23-25

NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 5 esp 5:12-19

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK I, par 18 5c-d / City of God, BK XII, CH 21-22 357a-c; BK XIII, CH 1-15 360a-366d; BK XIV, CH 1 376b,d-377a; CH 10-16 385b-390b; BK XXI, CH 12 571a-c

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 47, A 2, ANS 257b-258c

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, QQ 81-83 162d-174b

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XXVIII [91-96] 97a; XXIX [22-30] 97d-98a; XXXIII [52-72] 104d-105a; PARADISE, VII [16-120] 115b-116b

22 Chaucer: Pardoner’s Tale [12,432-445] 375a / Parson’s Tale, par 18 506b-507b

30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 17d-18a; 81a / Novum Organum, BK I, APH 52, 195c-d

31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 68, SCHOL 445a-b

32 Milton: Paradise Lost 93a-333a esp BK I [1-26] 93b-94a, BK III [80-415] 137a-144b, BK IV [411-439] 161b-162a, [512-520] 163b, BK V [28-94] 176a-177a, [224-247] 180a-b, [512-553] 186b-187a, BK VIII [316-333] 239a-b, BK IX [647-1004] 261b-269a, [1110-1133] 271b-272a, BK X [585-640] 287a-288b, [720-844] 290a-292b, [1013-1104] 296b-298b, BK XII [386-435] 327b-328b / Areopagitica, 394b-395b

33 Pascal: Pensées, 434-435 248a-251a; 445-448 251b-253a

37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 38d

40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 183b-c

43 Mill: Liberty, 296b-d

46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, INTRO, par 18 16c-d; ADDITIONS, 14 118c-d / Philosophy of History, PART III, 304d-306a

50 Marx: Capital, 354b

54 Freud: War and Death, 763b-c

3a. The condition of Adam before sin: his supernatural state of grace; his preternatural gifts

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:27-29; 2:7-8,15-25 / Ecclesiastes, 7:29—(D) Ecclesiastes, 7:30

APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 1:13-14; 2:23—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 1:13-14; 2:23 / Ecclesiasticus, 17:1-15—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 17:1-13

18 Augustine: City of God, BK XI, CH 12 329b-c; BK XII, CH 21-23 357a-358a; BK XIII, CH 1 360a-b; CH 13-14 366a-c; CH 19 369c-370c; BK XIV, CH 1 376b,d-377a; CH 10-28 385b-397d passim; BK XXII, CH 30, 617c-618a

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 76, A 5, REP 1 394c-396a; QQ 94-102 501c-527a,c

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 81, A 5, REP 2 167a-d; Q 89, A 3 200d-201d; Q 109, A 2, ANS 339c-340b; A 3, CONTRARY and ANS 340c-341b; A 4, ANS 341c-342a; A 8, ANS and REP 3 344d-346a; A 10, REP 3 347a-d; PART II-II, Q 2, A 7, ANS 396a-397c; Q 5, A 1, ANS 410a-411b; PART III, Q 1, A 3, REP 1,5 704d-706a

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XXVIII [1]-XXIX [36] 96a-98a / PARADISE, VII [64-84] 115d-116a; XI [31-111] 125d-126c

22 Chaucer: Monk’s Tale [14,013-020] 434b / Parson’s Tale, par 18, 506b-507a

23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART III, 191b-c; 192a-b; PART IV, 250d

31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 68, SCHOL 445a-b

32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK I [650-654] 107b; BK III [56-371] 136b-143b; BK IV [32-538] 153a-164a esp [131-171] 155a-156a, [205-392] 157a-161a; [610-775] 165b-169a; BK V [1-560] 175a-187b; BK VII [40-108] 218a-219b; [519-550] 228b-229a; [617-632] 230b-231a; BK VIII 232a-240b; BK IX [192-454] 251b-257a; BK XI [45-71] 300a-b; BK XII [63-110] 320b-321b

33 Pascal: Pensées, 560 272b

46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 179d-180c; PART III, 304d-305a

51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK VII, 275a

3b. The sin of Adam

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3 / Ecclesiastes, 7:29—(D) Ecclesiastes, 7:30

APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 1:13-16; 2:23-24—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 1:13-16; 2:23-25

NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 5:12

18 Augustine: City of God, BK XII, CH 21 357a-b; BK XIII, CH 1 360a-b; CH 12-15 365d-366d; BK XIV, CH 11-15 385d-390a; BK XXI, CH 12 571a-c; BK XXII, CH 24, 609a-b

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 81, A 5 167a-d; Q 82, A 2, REP 1 168d-169c; Q 89, A 3 200d-201d

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XXVIII [91-96] 97a; XXIX [22-30] 97d-98a; PARADISE, VII [16-120] 115b-116b; XXVI [109-117] 147a

22 Chaucer: Pardoner’s Tale [12,432-445] 375a / Monk’s Tale [14,013-020] 434b / Parson’s Tale, par 18, 507a-b

23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 112a-b; PART III, 177d; 191b-c; 195d

25 Montaigne: Essays, 233b

30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 81a

31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 68, SCHOL 445a-b

32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK I [27-75] 94a-95a; BK III [167-216] 139a-140a; [274-294] 141b; BK IV [505-535] 163b-164a; BK IX [647-1004] 261b-269a / Areopagitica, 394b-395a

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 82a-b

46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, PART III, 304d-305b

3c. The nature of fallen man in consequence of Adam’s sin

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:9-24; 6:5-13; 8:21 / Job, 15:14-16; 25:4-6 / Psalms, 14:1-3; 39:5-6,11; 51:2-5; 53:1-3—(D) Psalms, 13:1-3; 38:6-7,12; 50:4-7; 52:1-4 / Proverbs, 20:9 / Ecclesiastes, 7:20,27-29; 9:3—(D) Ecclesiastes, 7:21,28-30; 9:3 / Jeremiah, 17:9—(D) Jeremias, 17:9

APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 2:23-24—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 2:23-25

NEW TESTAMENT: John, 8:3-8 / Romans, 3:9-5:21 esp 5:12-21; 7; 8:20-21; 9:29 / I Corinthians, 15:21-22 / Galatians, 2:16; 3 esp 3:11, 3:22; 4:1-7; 5:19-21 / Ephesians, 2:1-5 / I John, 2:15-19

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK I, par 18 5c-d / City of God, BK XII, CH 21-22 357a-c; BK XIII, CH 1-15 360a-366d; BK XIII, CH 23-BK XIV, CH 5 372a-380b; BK XIV, CH 12-13 387a-388c; CH 15-27 388d-397a; BK XXI, CH 12 571a-c; CH 15 572c-573b; BK XXII, CH 22 606d-608b; CH 30, 617c-618a

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 97, A 1, REP 3 513c-514c; Q 98, A 2 517d-519a; PART I-II, Q 17, A 9, REP 3 692d-693d

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, QQ 81-83 162d-174b; Q 85 178b-184a; Q 91, A 6 212c-213c; Q 94, A 6, REP 1-2 225d-226b; Q 109, A 2, ANS 339c-340b; A 3, ANS 340c-341b; A 8, ANS 344d-346a; PART III, Q 8, A 5, REP 1 760a-d; QQ 14-15 784a-796a

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, III [16-45] 56a-b; X [121-129] 68c-d; XXVIII [91-96] 97a; XXIX [16-30] 97d-98a; PARADISE, VII [16-120] 115b-116b

22 Chaucer: Tale of Man of Law [4778-4791] 240b-241a / Pardoner’s Tale 374a-382b esp [12,432-445] 375a, [12,829-837] 381b / Parson’s Tale, par 18, 507b

23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 112a-b; PART III, 191b-c; 192a-c; 195d

24 Rabelais: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK II, 81a-b

25 Montaigne: Essays, 213a-215b; 218c-219a; 233a-234a; 238b-239c; 250a-b; 294a-b

30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK I, APH 52, 195c-d

32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK III [167-216] 139a-140a; [274-304] 141b-142a; BK IX [780-1189] 264b-273a; BK X 274a-298b esp [103-123] 276b-277a, [229-409] 279b-283a, [585-640] 287a-288b, [720-844] 290a-292b; BK XI [84-98] 301a; [162-180] 302b-303a; [251-262] 304b-305a; BK XI [423]-BK XII [371] 308b-327a

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 82a / Pensées, 426-427 244b; 430-431 245a-247b; 434-435 248a-251a; 439-450 251a-253a; 560 272b

37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 38d

40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 183b-c

44 Boswell: Johnson, 482a

46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 14 118c-d / Philosophy of History, PART III, 304d-305b; PART IV, 354a-c

50 Marx: Capital, 354b

51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK VII, 275a

3d. The need for a mediator between God and man to atone for original sin

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 1:21; 9:2-6; 18:11-14; 26:26-28 / Mark, 2:3-11 / Luke, 1:67-69; 2:11; 5:20-24; 7:37-50; 9:56; 19:1-10; 24:44-47 / John, 1:29; 3:16-17; 4:42; 6:31-39; 10:9-18; 14:18-19 / Acts, 3:19-26; 4:10-12; 5:30-31; 10:37-43; 13:23,26,32-39; 16:30-31 / Romans, 1:16; 3:20-26; 5-6; 8:1-11,31-39; 9:29-10:21 / I Corinthians, 5:7; 15:1-4,12-23,55-57 / II Corinthians, 5:14-21 / Galatians, 1:3-4; 2:16-21; 3:19-27; 5:1-5 / Ephesians, 1:5-7,12-14; 2 / Colossians, 1:12-14,19-24; 2:1-15; 3:1-10 / I Timothy, 1:15; 2:5-7 / II Timothy, 1:8-10 / Titus, 3:4-7 / Hebrews, 1:1-3; 2:9-18; 5; 7:1-10:22; 12:24; 13:12 / I Peter, 1:7-9,18-21; 3:18 / I John, 2:1-2,12; 3:5-10 / Revelation, 1:4-6—(D) Apocalypse, 1:4-6

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK VII, par 24 50d-51a / City of God, BK IX, CH 1-18 285b,d-295d esp CH 15-17 293a-295c; BK X, CH 22 312a-b; CH 24-25 312d-314c; BK XI, CH 2-3 323a-d; BK XIII, CH 2-4 360b-362a; CH 23-24 372a-376a,c; BK XVII, CH 11 462c-463a; BK XXI, CH 16 573b-574a / Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 14-18 627d-629a; CH 34 634b-c; BK II, CH 41 656a-c

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 97, A 1, REP 3 513c-514c; PART I-II, Q 5, A 7, REP 2 642a-d

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 100, A 12 264d-265d; Q 103, A 2 299b-300d; PART III, PROLOGUE-Q 1 701a-709c; Q 3, A 8 729b-730b; Q 22, A 3 829c-830c

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, VI [82-93] 114c; VII [19-120] 115b-116b

22 Chaucer: Pardoner’s Tale [12,834-837] 381b / Parson’s Tale, par 87, 545a

23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART III, 191c-d; 197d-198a; 204a-c

32 Milton: Christ’s Nativity [1-14] 1a-b; [125-156] 4b-5a / The Passion 10b-12a / Upon the Circumcision 12b-13a / Paradise Lost 93a-333a esp BK I [1-26] 93b-94a, BK III [56-415] 136b-144b, BK XI [1-44] 299a-300a, BK XII [285-484] 325b-329b

33 Pascal: Pensées, 430 245a-247b; 527-550 264b-267b; 556 270b-272a; 560 272b; 692 300b-301a; 780-783 324b-325a

44 Boswell: Johnson, 482a-d

46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, PART III, 306b-c; PART IV, 331d-333b

52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 127b-137c passim

54 Freud: Civilization and Its Discontents, 797b-c

3e. The remission of sin: baptism; the state of the unbaptized

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 3:11-17; 28:19 / Mark, 1:4-8; 16:16 / Luke, 3:3,16 / John, 1:25-26,33; 3:5 / Acts, 1:5; 2:38-41 esp 2:38; 3:19; 8:35-38; 10:43-48; 11:16; 19:1-5; 22:16 / Romans, 3:20-26; 5-6; 8:1-11; 9:29-10:10 / I Corinthians, 12:13 / II Corinthians, 5:14-19 / Galatians, 3:19-27 / Ephesians, 2; 4:5 / Colossians, 2:8-15 / Titus, 3:5-7 / Hebrews, 6:1-6 / I Peter, 1:18-23

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK I, par 6 2b-c; par 17-18 5b-d; BK II, par 15 12b-c; BK IV, par 7-8 20d-21b / City of God, BK X, CH 22 312a-b; BK XII, CH 22 357c; BK XIII, CH 7 362d-363b; BK XXI, CH 16 573b-574a

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 97, A 1, REP 3 513c-514c

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 81, A 1, ANS 163a-164d; Q 89, A 6, ANS 203b-204a,c; Q 113 360d-370b; PART III, Q 3, A 8, ANS and REP 3 729b-730b; Q 65, A 1, ANS 879c-881d; A 4, ANS 883d-884a,c; PART III SUPPL, Q 69, AA 4-7 889c-893c

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, IV 5c-7a; PURGATORY, VII [1-36] 62c-d; XXII [55-93] 87a-c; PARADISE, XIX [22-111] 135b-136a; XX [31-148] 137a-138b; XXXII [37-84] 155a-c

22 Chaucer: Parson’s Tale, par 3 496a; par 18-19, 507b-508a

23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART III, 206c-207a; 211c-212b; 244d-245a

32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK XII [436-445] 328b-329a

36 Sterne: Tristram Shandy, 221a-224a

40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 297c-298b

4. Actual or personal sin

4a. The relation of original sin to actual sin

NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 3:7-26; 5:12-21

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK I, par 17-18 5b-d / City of God, BK XIV, CH 1 376b,d-377a; CH 3 378a-d

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 114, A 3, ANS 583b-d

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 81, A 1, ANS 163a-164d; Q 89, A 6 203b-204a,c; PART III, Q 1, A 4 706a-707a

22 Chaucer: Parson’s Tale, par 18-19 507b-508b

32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK III [167-216] 139a-140a; [274-343] 141b-143a; BK IX [994-1080] 269a-271a / Areopagitica, 394b-395b

4b. The causes and occasions of actual sin

OLD TESTAMENT: Numbers, 15:27-31 / Job, 1:1-5; 31 / Proverbs, 1:10-19; 10-19 passim; 21:4; 24:9; 28:20; 30:8-9 / Ecclesiastes, 7:26—(D) Ecclesiastes, 7:27 / Isaiah, 5:11-12,22-23; 28:7-8—(D) Isaias, 5:11-12,22-23; 28:7-8

APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 2 esp 2:24; 14:22-29—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 2 esp 2:24-25; 14:22-29 / Ecclesiasticus, 8:2; 10:9,13; 11:10; 12:13-14; 19:2; 23:1-6,13,16,18; 25:24; 26:29; 27:2,10; 31:5-11,25-31; 47:19-20—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 8:2-3; 10:9,15-16; 11:10; 12:13; 19:2-3; 23:1-6,17,21-23,25-26; 25:33; 26:28; 27:2,11; 31:5-11,30-42; 47:21-22

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 13:18-23; 15:10-20 / Mark, 4:1-20; 7:14-23 / Luke, 4:1-13; 8:4-15 / Romans, 1:18-32; 6:19; 7:22-23 / I Corinthians, 7:4-5; 8:9-13; 9:27; 15:56 / II Corinthians, 2:10-11; 4:3-4 / Galatians, 5:16-21 / Ephesians, 4:22 / Colossians, 3:5-7 / I Timothy, 6:9-10 / II Timothy, 2:25-26 / Titus, 3:3 / James, 1:15; 2; 4:1-6 / I Peter, 4:1-3; 5:8-9 / II Peter, 1:4; 2:10-22 / I John, 3:4-9

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK II, par 6-18 10a-13a; BK III, par 16 17c-d; BK VII, par 4-5 44b-d; BK VIII, par 10-11 55c-56b; BK X, par 41-66 81c-88b / City of God, BK I, CH 16-27 139c-146a; BK XIV, CH 3-6 378a-380c; CH 13-14 387c-388d; BK XV, CH 22 416a-c; BK XIX, CH 6 514b-515a

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 48, A 5, REP 3 263a-d; Q 63, A 7, ANS 331c-332b; A 8 332c-333b; Q 92, A 1, REP 3 488d-489d; Q 114 581d-585c; PART I-II, Q 1, A 7, REP 1 614c-615a; Q 42, A 3 802d-803c

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, QQ 75-84 137c-178a

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL 1a-52d passim, esp XI 15a-16b, XIII [31-108] 18b-19a, XXIV [1-78] 34d-35b, XXIX [55-132] 40a-41a; PURGATORY 53a-105d passim, esp XI 68d-70b, XIII [103-129] 73a-b, XV [40-81] 75d-76a, XVI [52-114] 77b-78a, XVII [91]-XVIII [75] 79b-80c, XIX [1-69] 81c-82a, XXX-XXXI 99b-102b; PARADISE, I [94-142] 107b-d

22 Chaucer: Friar’s Tale 278a-284a / Prologue of Pardoner’s Tale 372a-374a / Pardoner’s Tale 374a-382b esp [12,397-593] 374a-377b, [12,829-852] 381b / Tale of Melibeus, par 48-52 421b-425b / Second Nun’s Prologue [15,469-489] 461a / Parson’s Tale 495a-550a esp par 3 496a, par 20-86 508b-544a

23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 85d; PART II, 138d-139c; 151b; PART IV, 272d

26 Shakespeare: 2nd Henry VI, ACT V, SC I [175-190] 66d-67a

27 Shakespeare: Hamlet, ACT I, SC II [129-137] 32d-33a; ACT III, SC III [36-72] 53d-54a; SC IV [144-152] 56a-b / Measure for Measure, ACT I, SC I [162-187] 183d-184a; SC III [10-39] 184b-c; ACT II, SC I [95-151] 187d-188b / Othello, ACT I, SC III [60-69] 209c / Pericles, ACT I, PROLOGUE-SC I 421b-423c / Cymbeline, ACT III, SC IV [76-80] 467c / Henry VIII, ACT I, SC II [435-457] 573c-d

31 Descartes: Objections and Replies, 125d-126a

32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK IV [505-535] 163b-164a; BK V [26-94] 175b-177a / Samson Agonistes [766-842] 356b-358a esp [831-842] 357b-358a

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 19b-26b; 29b-61b; 66a-70b; 72a; 74a-80b; 91a-111b passim; 112b-113a / Geometrical Demonstration, 440a-b

47 Goethe: Faust, PROLOGUE 7a-9b

48 Melville: Moby Dick, 3b-4a

52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK III, 53c-54b; 64c-67a; BK IV, 88d-89a

4c. Pride as the principle of sin: the tragic fault of hybris

OLD TESTAMENT: Numbers, 15:30 / Job, 31:26-28; 33:16-17; 35:12 / Psalms, 10:2-6; 12:1-5; 101:5—(D) Psalms, 9:21-26; 11:1-5; 100:5 / Proverbs, 6:16-17; 8:13; 11:2; 14:3; 15:25; 16:18-19; 18:12; 21:4; 29:23 / Isaiah, 2:11-17; 10:12-15; 13:11; 14:4-22 esp 14:11-17; 16:6-7; 23:9—(D) Isaias, 2:11-17; 10:12-15; 13:11; 14:4-22 esp 14:11-17; 23:9 / Jeremiah, 48:26,29-31; 50:29-32—(D) Jeremias, 48:26,29-31; 50:29-32 / Ezekiel, 16:49-50—(D) Ezechiel, 16:49-50 / Daniel, 5:18-20 / Hosea, 5:5; 7:10—(D) Osee, 5:5; 7:10 / Zephaniah, 2:9-10—(D) Sophonias, 2:9-10

APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4:13—(D) OT, Tobias, 4:14 / Ecclesiasticus, 10:7-18 esp 10:13; 11:30-31; 13:1; 23:4,8; 32:12—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 10:7-22 esp 10:15; 11:32-33; 13:1; 23:5,8; 32:16

NEW TESTAMENT: Luke, 18:10-14 / Acts, 12:20-23 / I Timothy, 3:6 / James, 4:6-7 / I Peter, 5:5 / I John, 2:16

4 Homer: Iliad, BK I 3a-9a,c; BK IX 57a-64a,c

5 Aeschylus: Persians 15a-26d esp [739-831] 23a-24a / Seven Against Thebes [375-675] 31b-34b / Prometheus Bound 40a-51d esp [1-87] 40a-41a, [944-1093] 50b-51d / Agamemnon [905-957] 61c-62b

5 Sophocles: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c esp [863-910] 107b-c / Antigone [100-147] 132a-b / Ajax 143a-155a,c

6 Herodotus: History, BK I, 8a-b; BK VII, 217c; BK VIII, 279d-280a

12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK I, CH 14 189c-190a

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK III, par 16 17c-d; BK V, par 3-5 27c-28c; BK X, par 58-64 86a-87d; BK XII, par 34-35 107c-108b / City of God, BK XII, CH 6, 345b-c; BK XIV, CH 9, 384b-385b; CH 13-15 387c-390a; CH 27-28 396c-397d

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 77, A 4 148b-149a; Q 84, A 2 175b-176a; A 4, ANS and REP 4 176d-178a

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, VIII [65]-IX [103] 11c-13b; XIV [43-72] 20a-b; XXV [1-15] 36b-c; PURGATORY, X-XII 67b-71d

22 Chaucer: Monk’s Tale 434a-448b esp [13,997-14,012] 434a, [14,189-684] 437b-447a / Parson’s Tale, par 23-29 510b-515b

25 Montaigne: Essays, 233b-234a; 238b-c

27 Shakespeare: Troilus and Cressida, ACT II, SC III [122-228] 117a-118a / Henry VIII, ACT II, SC II [350-372] 572c-d

32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK I 93a-110b esp [27-75] 94a-95a, [84-124] 95b-96a, [622-662] 107a-108a; BK II [1-105] 111a-113b; [299-389] 117b-119b; BK IV [32-119] 153a-155a; [505-535] 163b-164a; BK V [600-904] 188b-195a; BK IX [99-178] 249b-251a / Samson Agonistes [521-540] 351a-b

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 66a-b / Pensées, 430 245a-247b; 455-460 253b-254b; 492 259b

36 Swift: Gulliver’s Travels, PART IV, 183b-184a

37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 379c-380a

52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK IV, 83c-84a; BK V, 130b-135a; BK VI, 168a-c

4d. The consequences of actual sin: the loss of charity and grace

OLD TESTAMENT: Isaiah, 57:21—(D) Isaias, 57:21 / Jeremiah, 13:23—(D) Jeremias, 13:23

APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 12:10—(D) OT, Tobias, 12:10 / Ecclesiasticus, 19:4; 21:2-3—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 19:4; 21:2-4

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 27:3-5 / John, 8:34 / Romans, 1:16-32; 7:5-13 / Hebrews, 3:13 / James, 1:15 / II Peter, 2:18-22

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK X, par 65-66 87d-88b / City of God, BK XII, CH 3 343d-344b; BK XIV, CH 3, 378a-b; CH 8-9 381c-385b; CH 12-15 387a-390a; BK XIX, CH 13 519a-520a

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 64, AA 1-3 334a-337c; Q 114, A 3 583b-d

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, QQ 85-87 178b-192d; Q 89, A 1 199a-c; Q 94, A 6 225d-226b; Q 109 338a-347d passim; PART II-II, Q 24, A 12 499c-500d

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL 1a-52d; PURGATORY, II [118-133] 55d; XI 68d-70b

22 Chaucer: Parson’s Tale, par 53 526b-527a

32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK XI-XII 299a-333a

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 19b-26b; 28b-31b; 36a-61b; 132a-b; 137a

4e. The prevention and purging of sin: purification by sacrifice; the sacrament of penance; contrition, confession, and absolution

OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 29:36-37; 30:10-16 / Leviticus passim, esp 4-6, 16:5-34, 17:11, 19:20-22, 23:26-32, 26:39-43 / Numbers, 5:5-9; 6:9-12; 8:19; 15:22-29; 16:46-48; 19:1-10; 25:1-13 / Deuteronomy, 21:1-9 / II Samuel, 12:7-23—(D) II Kings, 12:7-23 / I Kings, 8:31-50—(D) III Kings, 8:31-50 / II Chronicles, 6:24-42; 7:12-14; 29:21-24; 33:12-19—(D) II Paralipomenon, 6:24-42; 7:12-14; 29:21-24; 33:12-19 / Job, 1:4-5; 42:1-6 / Psalms, 32:1-5,10; 34:18; 38:17-18; 40:6; 51; 69:5-13—(D) Psalms, 31:1-5,10; 33:19; 37:18-19; 39:7; 50; 68:6-14 / Isaiah, 1:16-20; 58:1-7—(D) Isaias, 1:16-20; 58:1-7 / Ezekiel, 43:18-27—(D) Ezechiel, 43:18-27 / Daniel, 9:3-20 / Joel, 1:8-15; 2:12-17 / Jonah, 3—(D) Jonas, 3 / Micah, 6:6-8—(D) Micheas, 6:6-8

APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 12:19—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 12:19 / Ecclesiasticus, 1:21; 3:3,14-15; 17:24-26; 18:21; 20:2-3; 21:1,6; 23:1-6; 28:2-5; 34:18-19,25-26—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 1:27; 3:4,15-17; 17:20-24; 18:21; 20:1-3; 21:1,7; 23:1-6; 28:2-5; 34:21-23,30-31 / II Maccabees, 12:39-45—(D) OT, II Machabees, 12:39-46

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 3:1-12; 4:17; 9:13; 11:20-21 / Mark, 1:4-15 / Luke, 3:8; 5:32; 7:36-50; 10:13; 13:1-5; 15; 16:27-31 / John, 20:22-23 / Acts, 3:19; 5:31; 8:9-24; 17:30; 26:20 / Romans, 2:4-6 / I Corinthians, 6:9-11 / II Corinthians, 7:8-12 / II Timothy, 2:25-26 / Hebrews, 5:1-10; 6:4-8; 7:20-10:18 / James, 4:8-10; 5:13-16,20 / I Peter, 4:1-2 / II Peter, 3:9 / I John, 1:9; 3:4-5 / Revelation, 2:18-23; 3:1-6,19—(D) Apocalypse, 2:18-23; 3:1-6,19

4 Homer: Iliad, BK IX [485-526] 62a-b

5 Aeschylus: Choephoroe [1021-1076] 80a-d / Eumenides 81a-91d esp [276-298] 84a-b, [443-453] 86a

5 Euripides: Electra [1233-1359] 338b-339a,c

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK I, par 17 5b-c; BK II, par 1 9a; par 15 12b-c; BK V, par 1 27a-b; BK IX, par 12 64d-65a / City of God, BK XIII, CH 7 362d-363b

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 35, A 5, REP 1 775d-777a; Q 37, A 2, REP 1 784c-785b

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 87, A 6, ANS and REP 2 189c-190c; A 7, ANS and REP 3 190c-191d; A 8, ANS 191d-192d; Q 102, A 3, REP 8-11 272b-276c; PART III, QQ 61-65 855a-884a,c

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, XXIX [55-132] 40a-41a; PURGATORY, I [103-145] 57a-c; IV [97-135] 58c-d; V [37-136] 59b-60c; IX 65d-67b; XXII [1-54] 86c-87a; XXX-XXXI 99b-102b

22 Chaucer: Prologue [208-234] 162b-163a / Prologue of Pardoner’s Tale 372a-374a / Parson’s Tale 495a-550a esp par 1-22 495a-510b, par 85-103 543a-550a / L’Envoy 550a-b

23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART III, 207a; 212a-b

25 Montaigne: Essays, 152b-153d; 156a-d; 388c-395b

26 Shakespeare: Henry V, ACT IV, SC I [309-322] 554c-d

27 Shakespeare: Hamlet, ACT I, SC V [74-80] 37d; ACT III, SC III [36-72] 53d-54a; SC IV [140-180] 56a-c / Winter’s Tale, ACT III, SC II [204-243] 503c-504a

29 Cervantes: Don Quixote, PART II, 427d-429d

32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK X [1086]-BK XI [44] 298a-300a / Samson Agonistes [472-540] 350a-351b

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 21b; 28b-34b; 43b; 62b-64b; 71b-80b passim; 124a; 132a-b; 137a / Pensées, 870 344a-b; 904-905 348b-349a; 923 351b

36 Sterne: Tristram Shandy, 260b-261a; 476a-477a

40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 191b-c; 199b-c; 452b-d

41 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 384b-385b

44 Boswell: Johnson, 314c-315b

46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, PART IV, 332b-333b; 349a-b; 354a-c

48 Melville: Moby Dick, 34b-36b

51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK I, 38b; 43b-44b; BK XI, 476c-478a

52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 22b-24c; BK III, 64c-67a; BK V, 127b-137c passim; BK VI, 157b-164a; 167b-169c

54 Freud: Civilization and Its Discontents, 793b

5. The remorse of conscience and feelings of guilt: the psychogenesis and pathological expression of the sense of sin

OLD TESTAMENT: Job, 42:5-6 / Psalms, 34:18; 38; 51:17—(D) Psalms, 33:19; 37; 50:19 / Proverbs, 28:1 / Isaiah, 57:15; 66:2—(D) Isaias, 57:15; 66:2 / Joel, 2:12-13

APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 5:1-13; 17—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 5:1-14; 17 / Ecclesiasticus, 14:1-2—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 14:1-2 / I Maccabees, 6:1-15 esp 6:12-13—(D) OT, I Machabees, 6:1-15 esp 6:12-13

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 27:3-5 / Luke, 7:36-38; 15:11-32 / John, 8:1-9 / II Corinthians, 7:8-12 / James, 4:8-10

5 Sophocles: Antigone [1091-1353] 140b-142d

5 Euripides: Andromache [802-879] 322a-c / Electra [1177-1232] 337d-338a / Heracles Mad [1229-1428] 375c-377d / Orestes [1-423] 394a-398b

6 Herodotus: History, BK I, 9d-10a

9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK IX, CH 4 [1166b12-24] 419d-420a

12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK III [978-1023] 42d-43b; BK V [1143-1160] 76a-b

15 Tacitus: Annals, BK VI, 87b-c

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK II, par 17 12d-13a; BK III, par 5 14b; BK V, par 2 27b-c / City of God, BK XIV, CH 8 381c-383a; CH 13-14, 388b-d

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 87 997a-1000c; Q 97, A 2 1066d-1067b

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, XXX [130]-XXXI [6] 45d-46a; PURGATORY, II [106]-III [15] 55c-56a; XIII [130-144] 73b-c; XXX-XXXI 99b-102b

22 Chaucer: Physician’s Tale [12,211-220] 370b-371a / Parson’s Tale, par 5-15 496b-506b

25 Montaigne: Essays, 14a-c; 174d-176c; 388c-395b passim

26 Shakespeare: 2nd Henry VI, ACT III, SC II 55d-56a / Richard III, ACT I, SC IV [1-75] 114d-115b; ACT V, SC III [177-206] 145c-d / Titus Andronicus, ACT V, SC I [73-85] 193a; SC III [184-190] 198c / Richard II, ACT V, SC VI [30-52] 351c-d / King John, ACT IV, SC II [215-248] 396d-397a / Merchant of Venice, ACT III, SC II [1-33] 412a-b

27 Shakespeare: Hamlet, ACT II, SC II [616-633] 46c-d; ACT III, SC I [44-54] 47b-c; SC III [36-72] 53d-54a; SC IV [88-96] 55c; ACT IV, SC V [16-20] 59d / King Lear, ACT II, SC IV [23-36] 264c / Macbeth, ACT II, SC II 291a-292a; ACT III, SC II 296b-297a; SC IV [60-144] 298b-299b; ACT V, SC I 306b-307a; SC III [37-46] 308a / Cymbeline, ACT V, SC I [1]-SC II [10] 479a-c; SC III [63-83] 480c-d

29 Cervantes: Don Quixote, PART I, 123a-b

30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 96a-c

31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART III, PROP 51, SCHOL 411d-412a; PART IV, PROP 53-54 440b-c

32 Milton: Comus [170-229] 37a-38b / Paradise Lost, BK III [167-216] 139a-140a / Samson Agonistes [590-605] 352b

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 19b-26b; 72a-b; 73b-80b

35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK I, CH III, SECT 9 106a-d

36 Sterne: Tristram Shandy, 255a-268a esp 261b-262a

37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 57c-58a; 379c-380c; 398d-399a

40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 54d-55a

42 Kant: Practical Reason, 306d-307d; 333a-334a / Pref. Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 374c-379d esp 375b-d, 379b-d / Intro. Metaphysic of Morals, 389a-b / Judgement, 593a-d

43 Mill: Utilitarianism, 458b-459b

46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, PART III, 304c-d; PART IV, 354a-c

47 Goethe: Faust, PART I [3544-3619] 86b-88a; [3776-3834] 92a-93b; 108b-109b; [4405-4612] 110a-114b

49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 312d-314c esp 313a-b

51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK III, 115d-116a; BK V, 216b-d; BK VI, 248b-250a; 251a-b; BK VII, 275a; 301b-d; BK VIII, 320b-323a; BK IX, 370c-372a; 373b-374d; BK X, 406c-410c; 416c-417b; 465c-467a; BK XI, 505a-511b passim, esp 509b-511b; BK XII, 549d-551c; BK XIV, 598d-599a; 606b-607a; EPILOGUE II, 689b

52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK III, 24a-c; BK IV, 95b-109a,c passim; BK VI, 157b-164a; BK VIII, 217c-218c; BK XI, 317b-320a; 337a-346a; EPILOGUE, 402a-408a

54 Freud: Interpretation of Dreams, 247d-248b / General Introduction, 582a-b / Group Psychology, 690c-691c / Ego and Id, 703b-c; 706b-707c; 712a-715c / War and Death, 763b-c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 792a-799a esp 792b-794a, 795c-796b, 797c-798c / New Introductory Lectures, 831b; 859a-d

6. Guilt and the punishment of sin

6a. Man’s freedom in relation to responsibility and guilt for sin: divine predestination or election

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3 / Deuteronomy, 30:15-20 / Joshua, 11:19-20—(D) Josue, 11:19-20 / Psalms, 81:11-12—(D) Psalms, 80:12-13 / Isaiah, 6:8-10; 63:17—(D) Isaias, 6:8-10; 63:17 / Jeremiah, 46:27-28—(D) Jeremias, 46:27-28

APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 19:4—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 19:4 / Ecclesiasticus, 15:11-20—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 15:11-21

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 13:13-15 / Luke, 22:3-4 / John, 6:64-66; 10:26-29; 12:37-40; 13:18-27 / Acts, 4:27-28; 7:51; 28:25-27 / Romans, 1:16-32; 9:9-24; 11 passim / Ephesians, 1:3-12 / II Thessalonians, 2:11-14—(D) II Thessalonians, 2:12-14 / I Peter, 1:1-5

4 Homer: Iliad, BK VI [342-358] 43c-d

5 Aeschylus: Choephoroe 70a-80d esp [269-314] 72d-73b, [885-1076] 78d-80d / Eumenides 81a-91d

5 Sophocles: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c / Oedipus at Colonus 114a-130a,c esp [258-291] 116c-d, [939-1015] 123a-d

5 Euripides: Electra 327a-339a,c esp [1168-1359] 337d-339a,c / Orestes 394a-410d esp [478-629] 398d-400b

12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK II, SECT 11 258a-b

18 Augustine: City of God, BK V, CH 9-10 213b-216c; BK XII, CH 3 343d-344b; CH 8 346d-347b; BK XIV, CH 11-12 385d-387b; CH 15 388d-390a; BK XV, CH 1 397b,d-398c; BK XXII, CH 1 586b,d-587b; CH 30, 617c-618a

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 17, A 1, ANS 100d-101d; Q 19, A 9 116d-117d; Q 22, A 2, REP 4-5 128d-130d; Q 23, A 3 134b-135a; Q 24, A 3 142d-143c; Q 62, A 3, REP 2 319c-320b; A 8, REP 3 323c-324a; Q 113, A 1, REP 3 576a-d; PART I-II, Q 6, A 4, REP 3 647b-648a; Q 24, A 3, REP 3 728c-729c; Q 42, A 3, ANS 802d-803c

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 73, A 6 123d-124c; A 10 128a-d; Q 74 128d-137c; Q 75, AA 1-2 137d-139b; Q 76, AA 3-4 142d-144d; Q 77, AA 6-7 150a-151c; QQ 78-80 152b-162d; PART II-II, Q 186, A 10 662b-663b

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVI [52-114] 77b-78a; XVIII [1-75] 79d-80c; PARADISE, I [94-142] 107b-d; IV [64-114] 111b-d; XIX [22-111] 135b-136a; XX [31-148] 137a-138b

25 Montaigne: Essays, 250a

30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 17d-18a

31 Descartes: Meditations, IV 89a-93a passim, esp 91b

32 Milton: Paradise Lost 93a-333a esp BK III [80-134] 137a-138a, [167-216] 139a-140a, [274-302] 141b-142a, BK IV [505-535] 163b-164a, BK V [224-245] 180a-b, [506-543] 186a-187a, BK X [615-640] 287b-288b / Samson Agonistes [23-67] 340a-341a; [373-419] 347b-348b / Areopagitica, 394b-395b

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 19b-26b; 155b-157b; 158b-159a

35 Hume: Human Understanding, SECT VIII, DIV 78-81 485c-487a

42 Kant: Judgement, 594d [fn 1]

47 Goethe: Faust, PROLOGUE [296-335] 8a-9a

51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 689b

52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 121a-135a

54 Freud: Interpretation of Dreams, 246c-247d / General Introduction, 581d-582b

6b. Collective responsibility for sin: the sins of the fathers

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:16-19 / Exodus, 20:5-6; 34:6-7 / Numbers, 14:18 / Deuteronomy, 5:9-10; 24:16 / II Samuel, 21:1-9—(D) II Kings, 21:1-9 / II Kings, 14:1-6—(D) IV Kings, 14:1-6 / II Chronicles, 25:4—(D) II Paralipomenon, 25:4 / Psalms, 109:1-16—(D) Psalms, 108:1-16 / Jeremiah, 31:29-30—(D) Jeremias, 31:29-30 / Ezekiel, 18—(D) Ezechiel, 18

APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 3:11-13—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 3:11-13 / Ecclesiasticus, 40:5-7—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 41:8-10 / Baruch, 3:7-8—(D) OT, Baruch, 3:7-8

NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 5:12-19 / I Corinthians, 15:21-22

5 Aeschylus: Seven Against Thebes 27a-39a,c esp [568-614] 33b-d, [653-956] 34b-37d / Agamemnon 52a-69d / Choephoroe 70a-80d / Eumenides 81a-91d

5 Sophocles: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c / Oedipus at Colonus 114a-130a,c / Antigone 131a-142d esp [582-626] 136b-c / Electra 156a-169a,c

5 Euripides: Phoenician Maidens 378a-393d / Orestes 394a-410d

6 Herodotus: History, BK VI, 203a-b; BK VII, 237d-239a; 246b-c; 246d-247a

6 Thucydides: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 380a-d

18 Augustine: City of God, BK XII, CH 21-22 357a-c; BK XIII, CH 3 361a-c; CH 23, 372c-373c; BK XIV, CH 1 376b,d-377a; CH 20, 392b; BK XVI, CH 27 439a-d; BK XXI, CH 12 571a-c

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 81 162d-167d; Q 87, A 8 191d-192d

26 Shakespeare: Henry V, ACT IV, SC I [136-202] 553a-c; [309-322] 554c-d

32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK III [274-302] 141b-142a

37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 20b-d

51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK XIV, 606b-607a

52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK IV, 83c-84a; BK V, 122b-d; BK VI, 149d-150a; 167b-169c; BK XI, 313c-314d

6c. The temporal punishment of sin: divine scourges

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:9-19; 4:8-15; 6:1-7:1-13; 18:20-19:29 / Exodus, 7-12; 14; 22:18-20,22-24; 32 / Leviticus, 10:1-3; 18:24-30; 20; 24:10-23; 26 / Numbers, 12; 14; 15:32-36; 16; 21:5-9; 25 / Deuteronomy, 4:20-31; 11:16-17; 28:15-68; 29:16-29 / Joshua, 5:6; 7—(D) Josue, 5:6; 7 / Judges, 9 / I Samuel, 3:11-15; 5; 15; 28:3-20—(D) I Kings, 3:11-15; 5; 15; 28:3-20 / II Samuel, 6:6-8; 12; 21:1; 24—(D) II Kings, 6:6-8; 12; 21:1; 24 / I Kings, 8:31-53; 9:6-9; 11; 13; 14:7-16; 16:1-13; 21:18-24—(D) III Kings, 8:31-53; 9:6-9; 11; 13; 14:7-16; 16:1-13; 21:18-24 / II Kings, 2:23-24; 5:20-27; 9:1-10:11; 17:6-18:12—(D) IV Kings, 2:23-24; 5:20-27; 9:1-10:11; 17:6-18:12 / I Chronicles, 10; 13:9-11; 21—(D) I Paralipomenon, 10; 13:9-11; 21 / II Chronicles, 6:24-42; 12; 21:12-20; 26:16-21; 36—(D) II Paralipomenon, 6:24-42; 12; 21:12-20; 26:16-21; 36 / Job passim, esp 4-5, 8, 11, 15:20-35, 18:1-21, 20:1-29, 22:1-30, 24:1-25, 27:1-23, 32:1-36:33 / Psalms, 11; 21; 37; 39:10-11; 89:28-33; 94—(D) Psalms, 10; 20; 36; 38:11-12; 88:29-34; 93 / Proverbs, 1:20-33; 2:10-22; 3:33-35; 5:3-14,21-23; 10-30 passim / Ecclesiastes, 2:26; 8:11-13 / Isaiah passim, esp 1, 2:5-3:26, 5:1-30, 9:8-10:27, 13:1-24:23, 28:1-32:20, 33:7-14, 34:1-17, 40:1-2, 42:13-25, 43:22-28, 47:1-15, 51:17-23, 63:1-6, 65:1-66:24—(D) Isaias passim, esp 1, 2:5-3:26, 5:1-30, 9:8-10:27, 13:1-24:23, 28:1-32:20, 33:7-14, 34:1-17, 40:1-2, 42:13-25, 43:22-28, 47:1-15, 51:17-23, 63:1-6, 65:1-66:24 / Jeremiah passim, esp 1:11-16, 4:1-9:26, 11:1-23, 13:9-14:12, 15:1-9, 16:1-21, 17:27-19:13, 21:1-29:32, 34:1-22, 44:1-30, 46:1-52:34—(D) Jeremias passim, esp 1:11-16, 4:1-9:26, 11:1-23, 13:9-14:12, 15:1-9, 16:1-21, 17:27-19:13, 21:1-29:32, 34:1-22, 44:1-30, 46:1-52:34 / Lamentations passim, esp 1:18-22, 3:42, 4:11-14 / Ezekiel, 3-39 passim—(D) Ezechiel, 3-39 passim / Daniel, 4; 5:17-30; 9:3-20 / Hosea passim—(D) Osee passim / Joel passim / Amos passim / Obadiah—(D) Abdias / Jonah, 3—(D) Jonas, 3 / Micah passim—(D) Micheas passim / Nahum passim / Habakkuk passim—(D) Habacuc passim / Zephaniah passim—(D) Sophonias passim / Zechariah, 9:3-6; 11:1-9—(D) Zacharias, 9:3-6; 11:1-9 / Malachi, 2; 4—(D) Malachias, 2; 4

APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 3:1-6—(D) OT, Tobias, 3:1-6 / Judith, 5:17-18; 8:18-25; 9; 11:9-19—(D) OT, Judith, 5:21-22; 8:18-25; 9; 11:9-19 / Wisdom of Solomon, 1:7-8,12-16; 2:24; 3:9-19; 5:17-6:9; 10:1-8; 11:9-20; 12; 14:7-31; 15:18-16:19; 17; 18:10-19:22—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 1:7-8,12-16; 2:24; 3:9-19; 5:17-6:9; 10:1-8; 11:9-20; 12; 14:7-31; 15:18-16:19; 17; 18:10-19:20 / Ecclesiasticus, 5:2-7; 10:13-16; 11:26; 16:6-13; 23:18-26; 27:25-28:6; 39:27-30—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 5:2-7; 10:13-16; 11:28; 16:6-13; 23:25-36; 27:25-28:6; 39:32-36 / Baruch, 1-5 passim—(D) OT, Baruch, 1-5 passim / I Maccabees, 2:62-63; 6:1-16—(D) OT, I Machabees, 2:62-63; 6:1-16 / II Maccabees, 6:12-17; 7:31-38; 9; 10:4; 12:40-42—(D) OT, II Machabees, 6:12-17; 7:31-38; 9; 10:4; 12:40-42

NEW TESTAMENT: Acts, 12:20-23; 13:4-12 / I Corinthians, 11:32 / Revelation, 8-9; 11; 16-18—(D) Apocalypse, 8-9; 11; 16-18

5 Aeschylus: Persians 15a-26d / Seven Against Thebes 27a-39a,c / Prometheus Bound 40a-51d / Agamemnon 52a-69d / Choephoroe 70a-80d / Eumenides 81a-91d

5 Sophocles: Oedipus the King 99a-113a,c / Oedipus at Colonus 114a-130a,c / Antigone 131a-142d esp [582-626] 136b-c / Ajax 143a-155a,c

5 Euripides: Electra 327a-339a,c / Bacchantes 340a-352a,c / Orestes 394a-410d

6 Herodotus: History, BK I, 4d; BK II, 70d-71a; BK III, 95c-d; 103b-d; BK IV, 159d; BK VI, 199c-d; 201b-c; 201d-202c; 203a-b; BK VII, 217c; 237d-239a; 246b-c; 246d-247a; BK VIII, 279d-280a; 283d

12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK III [978-1023] 42d-43b; BK VI [379-422] 85b-d

14 Plutarch: Camillus, 107b-d

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK III, par 5 14b / City of God, BK XIX, CH 15 521a-c; BK XXI, CH 13-14, 571d-572c / Christian Doctrine, BK III, CH 23 648a-c

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 79, AA 3-4 158a-159c; Q 87, A 4 188b-d

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, III [103-145] 57a-c; V [85-129] 59d-60c; XX [34-96] 83c-84a; XXIII [85-111] 89a-b; XXXIII [34-78] 104c-105a; PARADISE, XVII [46-99] 132c-133a; XVIII [115-136] 134d-135a; XXII [121]-XXIII [18] 139c-d; XXVI [1-66] 147b-148a; [121-148] 148c-d

22 Chaucer: Physician’s Tale [12,211-220] 370b-371a / Pardoner’s Tale 374a-382b / Monk’s Tale [14,149-684] 437a-447a

23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART II, 160c-161a; 163d-164a

30 Bacon: New Atlantis, 204d-205b

32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK XII [101-120] 321b / Samson Agonistes [667-709] 354a-355a; [1156-1177] 364b-365a; [1669-1707] 376a-b

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 139a-140a

35 Locke: Toleration, 1a-2c; 5c-6a; 14a-15a

36 Sterne: Tristram Shandy, 282a-287b

37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 20b-21a

38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK XI, 85d-86a

40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 180b; 188b-c; 198d-200a; 302d-303c; 452b-d

41 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 93c-94c passim

44 Boswell: Johnson, 314c-315b

48 Melville: Moby Dick, 30a-36b

51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK XIV, 606b-607a

52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 30b-32a

6d. The eternal punishment of sin: the everlasting perdition of the unrepentant in Hell

OLD TESTAMENT: Psalms, 9:16-17—(D) Psalms, 9:17-18 / Proverbs, 7:6-27; 11:31 / Isaiah, 33:10-14; 66:24—(D) Isaias, 33:10-14; 66:24 / Daniel, 12:2

APOCRYPHA: Judith, 16:17—(D) OT, Judith, 16:20-21 / Wisdom of Solomon, 4:16-20; 5:1-14—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 4:16-20; 5:1-15 / Ecclesiasticus, 7:16-17; 12:6; 18:22,24; 21:9-10—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 7:17-19; 12:4; 18:22,24; 21:10-11

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 3:7-12; 5:22,29-30; 8:12; 10:14-15,28; 11:20-24; 13:41-42,49-50; 18:7-9; 25:31-46 esp 25:41, 25:46 / Mark, 3:29; 9:42-49; 16:16 / Luke, 12:5; 16:19-26 / John, 15:6 / Romans, 6:23; 7:5 / I Corinthians, 6:9-11; 7:9; 15:55-56 / Galatians, 6:8 / II Thessalonians, 1:7-9 / Hebrews, 10:26-31 / James, 5:1-6 / I Peter, 4:18 / Jude, 6-13 / Revelation, 2:20-23; 14:9-11; 19:17-20:15; 21:8—(D) Apocalypse, 2:20-23; 14:9-11; 19:17-20:15; 21:8

4 Homer: Odyssey, BK XI [568-600] 248d-249a

5 Aristophanes: Frogs [143-153] 565d-566a

12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK III [978-1023] 42d-43b

18 Augustine: City of God, BK XII, CH 2 360b-361a; CH 12 365d-366a; CH 14-15 366b-d; CH 23, 372b-d; BK XIV, CH 1 376b,d-377a; CH 15 388d-390a; BK XV, CH 1 397b,d-398c; BK XIX, CH 13 519a-520a; CH 28 529d-530a,c; BK XX, CH 15 543d-544b; BK XXI 560a-586a,c esp CH 1-3 560a-562a, CH 9-10 568d-570b, CH 13 571c-572a, CH 17 574a-b, CH 23 576c-577b

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 10, A 3, REP 2 42c-43b; Q 21, A 4, REP 1 126c-127c; Q 63, A 8, ANS 332c-333b

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 87, AA 3-5 187b-189c; PART III SUPPL, Q 70, A 3 897d-900d; Q 87, A 1, REP 4 997b-998c; QQ 97-99 1066a-1085a,c

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL 1a-52d esp III 4a-5b, V [1-51] 7a-c, VI [94-115] 9b-c, VIII [100-130] 10c-d, XI 15a-16b, XIV [16-72] 19c-20b, XXVIII [55-136] 40a-41b, XXVII [112-142] 42c-43a, XXXIII [91-150] 50c-51a; PARADISE, XV [10-12] 128c

22 Chaucer: Friar’s Tale 278a-284a / Monk’s Tale [14,005-020] 434a-b / Parson’s Tale, par 8 497b-498a; par 10 498b-502a; par 15 506a-b; par 75, 536a; par 99 548b; par 101 549a

23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART III, 193d-195d; PART IV, 250c-251b; 253b-255b

24 Rabelais: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK II, 119b-122a

26 Shakespeare: Richard III, ACT I, SC IV [42-63] 115a-b

27 Shakespeare: Macbeth, ACT II, SC III [1-23] 292b

31 Descartes: Meditations, 69b

32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK I [1]-BK II [628] 93b-125a esp BK II [85-92] 113a; BK IV [1-113] 152b-155a

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 82a

35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 62 194c-d; SECT 72 198a-c; CH XXVIII, SECT 8 230a

40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 188d-189a

41 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 149c-150c; 234a-b

44 Boswell: Johnson, 363a-b

48 Melville: Moby Dick, 3b-4a

52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK I, 10b-11a; BK VI, 169c-170b; BK XI, 337a-346a passim

6e. The purifying punishments of Purgatory

OLD TESTAMENT: Isaiah, 4:4—(D) Isaias, 4:4 / Zechariah, 13:8-9—(D) Zacharias, 13:8-9 / Malachi, 3:1-6—(D) Malachias, 3:1-6

APOCRYPHA: II Maccabees, 12:43-46—(D) OT, II Machabees, 12:43-46

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 3:11-12; 12:32 / Luke, 3:16-17 / I Corinthians, 3:10-15

13 Virgil: Aeneid, BK VI [724-751] 230b-231a

18 Augustine: City of God, BK XX, CH 25-26 554c-556b; BK XXI, CH 13 571c-572a

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 69, A 2, ANS and REP 2 886c-887d; A 7, ANS and REP 6 891d-893c

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY 53a-105d esp I-II 53a-55d, III [103-145] 57a-c, V [85-129] 59d-60c, IX 65d-67b, X [97]-XI [90] 68b-69c, XII 71d-73c, XVII [76-139] 79b-d, XVIII [76-145] 80d-81b, XXI [34-75] 85b-d, XXV [109]-XXVI [90] 92c-93d, XXX-XXXI 99b-102b

23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART III, 244b-c; PART IV, 250c-251c; 255b-258b

27 Shakespeare: Hamlet, ACT I, SC V [9-22] 37a

41 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 234b; 520b-c

44 Boswell: Johnson, 173d

52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK XI, 341d-342c

7. Grace and good works in relation to salvation from sin

OLD TESTAMENT: Exodus, 34:7-9 / Numbers, 14:18-20 / I Kings, 8:33-39,46-50—(D) III Kings, 8:33-39,46-50 / II Chronicles, 6:20-30,36-39; 7:14—(D) II Paralipomenon, 6:20-30,36-39; 7:14 / Psalms, 32:1-5; 51; 78:38; 85:2; 86:5; 99:8; 103:1-13; 130—(D) Psalms, 31:1-5; 50; 77:38; 84:3; 85:5; 98:8; 102:1-13; 129 / Isaiah, 44:22; 55:7—(D) Isaias, 44:22; 55:7 / Jeremiah, 3:12; 31:34; 33:8; 36:3; 50:20—(D) Jeremias, 3:12; 31:34; 33:8; 36:3; 50:20 / Daniel, 9:9 / Hosea, 14:1-7—(D) Osee, 14:2-8 / Micah, 7:18-20—(D) Micheas, 7:18-20

APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 11:23; 12:19—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 11:24; 12:19 / Ecclesiasticus, 2:11; 16:11-14; 18:11-14; 28:2-5—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 2:13; 16:11-15; 18:9-14; 28:2-5

NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:7; 6:12,14-15; 9:2-6; 12:31-32; 18:21-35 / Mark, 2:5-10; 3:28; 4:12; 11:25-26 / Luke, 1:77-78; 5:20-24; 6:36-37; 7:37-50; 11:4; 12:10; 18:9-14; 23:34 / John, 3:16-17 / Acts, 5:31; 15:1-11 esp 15:11; 26:18 / Romans, 3-8; 9:15-18; 9:30-10:21; 11:5-32 / II Corinthians, 5:15-6:2 / Galatians, 2:16-21; 3:13-14 / Ephesians, 1:1-10; 2:4-9; 4:32 / Philippians, 2:12-13 / Colossians, 1:13-14; 2:13; 3:13 / II Timothy, 1:8-10 / Titus, 2:11-14; 3:3-8 / Hebrews, 4:16; 8:1-10:22 / James, 1:22-27; 2:14-26; 5:15,20 / I Peter, 1:3,13; 2:10; 4:8 / II Peter, 1:3-11 / I John, 1:9; 2:12; 3:1-10

18 Augustine: Confessions, BK II, par 15 12b-c / City of God, BK XIV, CH 1 376b,d-377a; CH 15, 388d-389b; CH 20 392a-b; CH 27 396c-397a; BK XIX, CH 4 511a-513c; BK XXI, CH 12 571a-c; CH 16 573b-574a; BK XXII, CH 30, 617c-618c

19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 62, AA 2-4 318d-321b

20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 63, A 2, REP 2 64b-65a; Q 109, AA 7-10 344a-347d; Q 111, A 2 352d-353d

21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, I-II 1a-4a; IV [13-66] 5c-6a; VIII [65]-IX [103] 11c-13b; XXIV [1-60] 34d-35b; PURGATORY 53a-105d esp I 53a-54c, IV [25-51] 57d-58a, [85-96] 58b-c, VII [37-60] 62d-63a, VIII [1-108] 64a-65b, IX 65d-67b, XI [1-36] 68d-69a, XXX [85-145] 100b-d; PARADISE, XXVIII [94-114] 149d-150a; XXXII [37-84] 155a-c

22 Chaucer: Troilus and Cressida, BK I, STANZA 144 19b-20a / Second Nun’s Tale [15,787-821] 467a-b / Parson’s Tale 495a-550a esp par 13 504b-505a, par 56, 527b-528a / L’Envoi 550a-b

26 Shakespeare: Henry V, ACT IV, SC I [309-322] 554c-d

32 Milton: Sonnets, XIV 66a / Paradise Lost, BK II [1028-1033] 133b; BK III [56-415] 136b-144b esp [130-134] 138a, [227-238] 140b; BK X [1-84] 274b-276a; [209-223] 279a; [1046-1104] 297a-298b; BK XI [1-21] 299a-b; [251-262] 304b-305a; BK XII [411-551] 328a-331a esp [421-427] 328b, [543-551] 331a; [574-605] 331b-332a

33 Pascal: Provincial Letters, 1a-13a; 15a-b; 19b-26b; 29b-34b; 65a-b; 78b-80b; 155b-157b; 158b-159a

37 Fielding: Tom Jones, 38d

41 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 233d-234b; 334b-c

44 Boswell: Johnson, 295b

46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, PART IV, 332d-333a; 349c-d; 354a-c; 362a

47 Goethe: Faust, PART II [11,934-941] 290b

52 Dostoevsky: Brothers Karamazov, BK VI, 164a-169c; BK VII, 180a-191c

53 James: Psychology, 200b

CROSS-REFERENCES

For:

• The meaning of sin, and for discussions bearing on the difference of sin from crime and vice, see LAW 3a-3b, 6e-6e(3); PUNISHMENT 3b, 5b; RELIGION 2; VIRTUE AND VICE 1, 8a-8b.
• Discussions relevant to the doctrine of original sin, see ANGEL 5a; GOOD AND EVIL 3f; MAN 9b-9b(2); VIRTUE AND VICE 8a; WILL 7e(1); and for the conditions of man’s atonement for and remission from original sin, see GOD 9c, 9e; RELIGION 2c.
• The causes and consequences of actual or personal sin, see GOOD AND EVIL 3f; VIRTUE AND VICE 8b; WILL 8b(1).
• The conditions of man’s salvation from sin, and the issue concerning grace and good works, see GOD 7d; LIBERTY 5c; NATURE 6b; PUNISHMENT 5c; VIRTUE AND VICE 8b.
• The nature of sanctity and heroic virtue, see PLEASURE AND PAIN 7b; RELIGION 3d; TEMPERANCE 6a; VIRTUE AND VICE 8f-8g.
• Other considerations of man’s freedom and responsibility for sin in relation to divine predestination, see FATE 4; GOD 7f; LIBERTY 5a-5b; PUNISHMENT 2a; WILL 5b(4), 7e(2).
• Other discussions of the divine punishment of sin, both temporal and eternal, see ETERNITY 4d; GOD 5i; HAPPINESS 7c(3); IMMORTALITY 5d-5e; PUNISHMENT 2, 5d-5e(2); VIRTUE AND VICE 8c.
• Treatments of the sense of sin in relation to duty, honor, conscience, and abnormal feelings of guilt, see DUTY 4-4b; HONOR 2a; PUNISHMENT 5c, 6.

ADDITIONAL READINGS

Listed below are works not included in Great Books of the Western World, but relevant to the idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:

I. Works by authors represented in this collection. II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.

For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.

I.

• Plutarch, “Of the Love of Wealth,” in Moralia
• Augustine, On Free Will, BK III, CH 14
• —, On Baptism, Against the Donatists
• —, Reply to Faustus, BK XXII (27)
• —, On the Merits and Remissions of Sins
• —, On the Grace of Christ and on Original Sin
• —, Against Two Letters of the Pelagians, BK IV, CH 7
• —, Of Marriage and Concupiscence, BK II (xxiv)
• Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles, BK III, CH 139-162; BK IV, CH 50-52
• —, Quaestiones Disputatae, De Veritate, Q 17; De Malo, QQ 2-5, 7-15
• —, Summa Theologica, PART II-II, QQ 161-165
• F. Bacon, “Of Envy,” in Essays
• Hobbes, Philosophical Rudiments Concerning Government and Society, CH 14
• —, The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic, PART I, CH 7
• Spinoza, Correspondence, XIX, XXI
• W. James, The Varieties of Religious Experience, LECT VI-VII
• Freud, Totem and Taboo
• —, The Future of an Illusion

II.

• Pirke Aboth (Sayings of the Fathers), CH 4 (5)
• Benedict of Nursia, The Rule
• Gregory the Great, Morals, BK XXXI
• Saadia Gaon, The Book of Beliefs and Opinions, TREATISE IV-V
• Anselm of Canterbury, Cur Deus Homo?
• —, De Conceptu Virginali et Originali Peccato
• Abailard, Ethics (Scito Teipsum)
• Maimonides, The Guide for the Perplexed, PART III, CH 40-41
• Francis of Assisi, The Rules
• Bonaventura, Breviloquium, PART III, V
• R. Bacon, Opus Majus, PART VII
• Albertus Magnus, Summa Theologiae, PART I, Q 26, MEMB I, ART 2 (2)
• Langland, Piers Plowman
• Albo, The Book of Principles (Sefer ha-Ikkarim), BK IV, CH 5-7
• Thomas à Kempis, The Imitation of Christ, BK I
• Ignatius of Loyola, Spiritual Exercises
• Luther, A Treatise on Christian Liberty
• —, The Schmalkald Articles, PART III
• —, Table Talk
• Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, BK II, CH 1-3, 6-17
• —, Commentaries on the Epistle of Paul the Apostle to the Romans, CH 5 (12)
• Suárez, Disputationes Metaphysicae, XI (1-3), XIX (7)
• Marlowe, The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus
• Baxter, The Saints’ Everlasting Rest
• J. Taylor, Of Holy Living
• —, Of Holy Dying
• Racine, Phèdre
• Malebranche, De la recherche de la vérité, BK II (I), CH 7 (5)
• Bunyan, Pilgrim’s Progress
• Leibniz, Discourse on Metaphysics, XXX-XXXII
• Bossuet, Traité de la concupiscence
• Clarke, An Inquiry into the Cause and Origin of Evil
• Law, A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life
• J. Edwards, The Great Christian Doctrine of Original Sin Defended
• Voltaire, “Conscience,” “Original Sin,” in A Philosophical Dictionary
• Coleridge, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner
• Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Idea, VOL I, BK IV (65)
• J. H. Newman, Lectures on the Doctrine of Justification
• Whewell, The Elements of Morality, BK II, CH 13-17
• Kierkegaard, The Concept of Dread
• —, The Sickness Unto Death, SEC II
• Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter
• Baudelaire, Flowers of Evil
• Flaubert, The Temptation of Saint Anthony
• Nietzsche, The Genealogy of Morals, I
• Frazer, The Golden Bough, PART III; PART VI; PART VII, CH 4-7
• Royce, Studies of Good and Evil
• Péguy, Men and Saints (Mortal Sin and Leprosy)
• Tennant, The Concept of Sin
• Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man
• O’Neill, Mourning Becomes Electra
• Tsanoff, The Nature of Evil
• Niebuhr, The Nature and Destiny of Man, VOL I
• C. S. Lewis, The Screwtape Letters
• —, Perelandra