Chapter 90: STATE
INTRODUCTION
Is man gregarious in the same sense as other animals are? Is he, unlike other social animals, the only political animal? Does man pattern the state after his own nature, or does he, in imitation of the angels, try to live up to a “‘city in the skies’—a model of rationality or a utopian illusion? According to the way such questions are answered, different theories of the state develop in the tradition of Western thought.
But it is not only the view man takes of his social nature which affects his view of society or the state. His conception of the state is also colored by his understanding of man’s place in nature and by his understanding of man’s relation to God. On one view the state is ordered to the service of man; on another, man is thought to be a creature of the state, and the state is made God; on still another, man—like Antigone in Sophocles’ play—seems to be torn between serving the state and serving God.
If man admits anything to be his superior, he acknowledges his inferiority only to God or to the state. That the idea of God and the idea of the state compete for maximum attention in the tradition of Western thought is a significant and readily intelligible fact. That the word “sovereign,” which connotes absolute supremacy, has both political and religious significance throws further light on this rivalry. It immediately suggests all the issues of church and state, of the spiritual and the temporal power, of the city of God and the city of man.
Even without the aura of divinity, the state, in the conception of many writers, assumes by comparison with the individual man the proportions of the greatest living thing on earth. For Plato it is the counterpart of the human soul, many times magnified. For Aristotle it is like an organic whole to which the individual belongs, just as his own arm or leg belongs to him as an organic part. For Hobbes it is the body politic—that Leviathan which dwarfs its members. For Rousseau it is the corporate person, having a general will more perfect than the individual will—infallible, or almost infallible. When to these images of the state is added the highest transfiguration—that by which the state becomes, according to Hegel, the image of God on earth or the embodiment of Absolute Spirit—the greatness of the state cannot be magnified further.
THE PASSAGES IN WHICH these conceptions first appear are among the most famous in the literature of the theory of the state. In the Republic, Socrates proposes that “we inquire into the nature of justice and injustice, first as they appear in the State and secondly in the individual, proceeding from the greater to the lesser and comparing them.” After the structure of the state has been examined in terms of its constituent classes and their functions or relations to one another, Socrates returns to the individual. We may assume, he says, that “he has the same three principles in his own soul which are found in the state”; and in another place he adds that “there appear to be as many forms of the soul as there are distinct forms of the State.”
Whereas Plato analogizes the social classes in the state with the parts of the soul, Aristotle compares the state in relation to the individual with the body in relation to its members. “The state is by nature clearly prior to the family and to the individual,” Aristotle writes, “since the whole is of necessity prior to the part; for example, if the whole body be destroyed, there will be no foot or hand, except in an equivocal sense. … The proof that the state is a creation of nature and prior to the individual is that the individual, when isolated, is not self-sufficing; and therefore he is like a part in relation to the whole.”
The analogical conception of the state takes a different turn with Hobbes. The state is a work of art, not a creation of nature. “Nature (the Art whereby God hath made and governs the world),” says Hobbes, “is by the Art of man, as in many other things, so in this also, imitated that it can make an Artificial Animal.” The machines men make—“engines that move themselves by springs and wheels as doth a watch”—seem to Hobbes to “have an artificial life.” But “Art goes yet further, imitating that Rational and most excellent work of Nature, Man. For by Art is created that great Leviathan called a Commonwealth or State (in Latin Civitas) which is but an Artificial Man; though of greater stature and strength than the Natural, for whose protection and defense it was intended; and in which the Sovereignty is an Artificial Soul, as giving life and motion to the whole body.”
Hobbes also speaks of the multitude being “united in one Person” as the “generation of that great Leviathan, or rather (to speak more reverently) of that Mortal God, to which we owe under the Immortal God, our peace and defence.” It is both divine and human, for “that which is compounded of the powers of most men, united by consent in one person, natural or civil” is, according to Hobbes, “the greatest of human powers.”
Rousseau has a number of different names for the “moral and collective body” formed by the association of individuals. “This public person,” he says, “formerly took the name city, and now takes that of Republic or body politic; it is called by its members State when passive, Sovereign when active, and Power when compared with others like itself.” But Rousseau’s primary emphasis seems to be upon the personality of the State; it is a corporate person, with moral qualities and intellectual faculties. He refers repeatedly to the State “as a persona ficta” and as “a moral person whose life is in the union of its members.”
Many of these comparisons or analogies recur in Hegel’s theory of the state. But for Hegel they are no longer metaphors, they are the elements of a literal definition. “The state is an organism,” says Hegel. It is the organic whole no part of which can have a separate life. As “occurs with life in the physical organism,” he writes, “life is present in every cell” and “separated from that life, every cell dies. This is the same as the ideality of every single class, power, and Corporation as soon as they have the impulse to subsist and be independent. It is with them as with the belly in the organism. It, too, asserts its independence, but at the same time its independence is set aside and it is sacrificed and absorbed into the whole.”
But the state is not merely a living organism. “To the mature state,” says Hegel, “thought and consciousness essentially belong. … As high as mind stands above nature, so high does the state stand above physical life. Man must therefore venerate the state as the divine on earth, and observe that if it is difficult to comprehend nature, it is infinitely harder to understand the state.” In saying this Hegel seems to go beyond analogy to the assertion of a definition. “The march of God in the world, that is what the state is,” he declares. “The basis of the state is the power of the reason actualizing itself as will. In considering the Idea of the state, we must not have our eyes on particular states or on particular institutions. Instead we must consider the Idea, this actual God, by itself.”
To those who object that the state is finite, Hegel replies that “to hold that mind on earth, i.e., the state, is only a finite mind, is a one-sided view, since there is nothing irrational about actuality. Of course, a bad state is worldly and finite and nothing else. But the rational state is inherently infinite.” As simply stated by Hegel in the Introduction to his Philosophy of History, “the State is the Divine idea as it exists on Earth.”
THE DIVERSE CONCEPTIONS of the state raise major issues in political theory concerning the origin of the state and the ends it serves, in both of which is involved the problem of the individual’s relation to the state. That problem is touched on in the chapter on CITIZEN, and wherever the problem of the common good or the general welfare is discussed. Here the question whether the state is made for man or man for the state, whether the state subordinates the individual in every phase of his life or only in those matters wherein the public welfare takes precedence over private interests, serves critically to test the practical significance of different theories of the state. Here also questions concerning the relation of the family to the state—discussed from the point of view of the domestic community in the chapter on FAMILY—throw light on the nature and origin of the political community.
The word “community” and its synonym “society” seem to be more inclusive in meaning than “state.” The family and the state are both communities—associations of individuals for a common purpose and sharing in a common life. The word “state” is customarily used only for the developed political society—whether a city-state, a feudal state, or a nation-state; the word “society” usually covers the tribal community, the village, or any community which is politically primitive and has some of the characteristics of a large family. In addition there are within the state, at least in its modern formation, many organized groups which deserve the name “society”—economic corporations and other associations, religious, educational, professional, recreational; and more comprehensive than any particular political community are the cities of God and man which, in Augustine’s conception of them, are not to be identified with either the Church or the State.
With the rise of the science of sociology in our time, the idea of society has come to be regarded as more general than that of state. But in the tradition of the great books, particularly those of political theory, the state seems to be considered the epitome of human society. All other forms of association are, for the most part, discussed only in their relation to the state, either as the antecedents from which the state develops, or as the subordinate organizations which it includes, or sometimes, as in the case of the church, a distinct but coordinate community.
The nature of society in general and the problem of different types of social organization and development are not treated in the great books except in their bearing on the family, the church, or the state—the three communities which seem to be taken as representative or basic. Hence there is no chapter on society or community as such. What for modern sociology is a unified subject matter here divides into a number of related yet distinct ideas—the domestic community being treated in the chapter on FAMILY, the religious community in the chapter on RELIGION, the various forms of economic organization in the chapters on LABOR and WEALTH. In this chapter, therefore, we shall confine our attention to the specifically political community, both in itself and in relation to these other communities or social groups.
CONCEIVED IN POLITICAL terms, the problems of the state would seem to be inseparable from the problems of government. Yet the ideas of state and government may be separated to the extent that one signifies the political community as a whole and the other the organization of its members according to relationships of ruler and ruled. Furthermore, the state may in one sense remain the same while in another it changes with changes in its form of government.
Some writers, like Aristotle and Hegel, tend to identify state and government. Aristotle, for example, says that “the sameness of the state consists chiefly in the sameness of its constitution.” Others, like Locke and Rousseau, seem to regard government as part of the state, the chief institution of a civil society or political community, but definitely a means for securing the ends for which the state is formed. For Locke government is primarily the legislative power, for Rousseau it is “the supreme administration, the legitimate exercise of the executive power,” but for both it is a representative body—an organ of the whole body politic.
Insofar as the great political theorists distinguish problems of the external relation of states with one another from those which concern the internal organization of the state, and the relation of the state to its own members, they also tend to distinguish state from government. Hegel’s distinction between external and internal sovereignty, for example, conceives the whole community as a sovereign state in relation to other communities and the state as a sovereign government in relation to its own members.
Such questions of sovereignty, or more generally of the relation of states to one another, belong to this chapter as well as to the chapter on WAR AND PEACE; but the theory of government is for the most part treated elsewhere—in the chapters on GOVERNMENT and CONSTITUTION, and in all the chapters dealing with the special forms of government. Still other problems of government, which have a bearing on the nature of the state, its powers, and its limits, are dealt with in the chapters on JUSTICE and LAW.
THAT IT IS SOMEHOW natural for men to associate politically is generally affirmed, even by those who also think the state is artificial or conventional. No one takes either of the possible extreme positions: that the state as a purely voluntary association is without any basis at all in man’s nature and needs; or that the state, like the bee hive and the ant mound, is purely a production of instinct.
Saying that “man is by nature a political animal,” Aristotle goes on to remark that “man is more of a political animal than bees or other gregarious animals.” But the difference Aristotle points out between man and other social animals may make man the only political animal. It consists in the fact that man, being “the only animal … endowed with the gift of speech,” can communicate with his fellows concerning “the expedient and inexpedient, and therefore likewise the just and the unjust.” What characterizes human associations, according to Aristotle, is that they are built upon a shared sense of the expedient and the just. “Justice,” he writes, “is the bond of men in states.”
Hobbes also distinguishes between human and animal societies, but seems to interpret the distinction differently. “Bees and ants live sociably one with another,” he says, “and yet have no other direction than their particular judgments and appetites; nor speech, whereby one of them can signify to another what he thinks expedient for the common benefit.” Inquiring “why mankind cannot do the same”—that is, live sociably without government and law—Hobbes offers a number of explanations, of which the last is that “the agreement of these creatures is natural; that of men is by covenant only, which is artificial; and therefore it is no wonder if there be somewhat else required (besides covenant) to make their agreement constant and lasting, which is common power to keep them in awe and to direct their actions to the common benefit.”
But though Hobbes calls the state artificial because he holds it to be the product of a contract, he does not deny the natural necessity which drives men to the creation of a commonwealth. Man quits the state of nature, which is a “war of every man against every man,” to achieve self-preservation, or at least to enjoy the security of civil peace and the freedom from fear of violence.
As natural as it may be for men to be “in that condition which is called war” when “they live without a common power to keep them all in awe,” it is equally natural, according to Hobbes, for men to seek peace. “The passions that incline men to peace are fear of death, desire of such things as are necessary to commodious living; and a hope by their industry to obtain them. And reason suggesteth convenient articles of peace, upon which men may be drawn to agreement.” The commonwealth is therefore natural, to the extent that man’s needs and passions require it and man’s reason recognizes certain natural laws for constructing it.
The state is naturally necessary, not as the effect of instinctive determinations, but as the rationally determined means to an end. If the end the state serves were not naturally sought, or if there were any other means which reason could devise for accomplishing that end, the state would be purely conventional—and dispensable. “The final cause, end, or design of men in the introduction of that restraint upon themselves (in which we see them live in commonwealths) is,” according to Hobbes, “the foresight of their own preservation and of a more contented life thereby.”
In this main particular Aristotle’s account of the origin of the state seems to be the same. Though he does not attribute its formation to a contract, and does not make fear the predominant motive, he does regard the state as natural only because of its indispensability as a means for achieving the ends men naturally seek. The family is natural, Aristotle suggests, because it is necessary for the perpetuation of the race and “for the supply of men’s everyday wants.” When men aim “at something more than the supply of daily needs, the first society to be formed is the village”—normally, an association of families. And “when several villages are united in a single complete community, large enough to be nearly or quite self-sufficing, the state comes into existence, originating in the bare needs of life, and continuing in existence for the sake of a good life. Therefore, if the earlier forms of society are natural, so is the state.”
The implication seems to be that if men were not naturally impelled to seek a better life than the family or the tribal community can provide—in other words, if the family or village satisfied all of man’s natural needs for society—the larger community, the state, would be neither natural nor necessary. That man is by nature a political animal does not, therefore, mean that men have always and everywhere lived in states.
Aristotle refers to the man who lives apart from society, describing the natural outcast—“the ‘tribeless, lawless, heartless one’ whom Homer denounces”—as “a lover of war.” He conceives the state as coming into being subsequent to more primitive forms of social life, each type of community being successively “established with a view to some good, for mankind always act in order to obtain that which they think good.” Since he thinks that the state “aims at good in a greater degree than any other, and at the highest good,” he praises the man “who first founded the state” as “the greatest of benefactors.”
FOR ARISTOTLE, THEN, there seems to be no inconsistency in saying that the state is as natural as the family and also that it is the result of a convention, i.e., a voluntary association of men. Nor does there seem to be any inconsistency between Hobbes’ view that the state is produced by a “covenant of every man with every man” and his understanding of the naturalness of the state in terms of the impulses which lead men to enter into this contract. The same double note appears in the account of the state’s origin which Locke, Rousseau, and Kant give. The issue raised by the contract theory thus seems to turn on the interpretation of the original convention—whether or not it has legal significance and what obligations or limitations it imposes.
Where Hobbes, for example, interprets the contract as creating, along with the commonwealth, a sovereign person having absolute power, Locke seems to make majority rule the legal consequence of the original compact. God “designed man for a sociable creature,” according to Locke, “with an inclination and under a necessity to have fellowship with those of his own kind.” Yet even what he calls “the first society … between man and wife,” Locke says, “is made by a voluntary compact.” It makes no difference to Locke’s theory whether political societies develop by expansion from the family (which he takes to be the normal course of events) or result from a voluntary association of independent men.
In either case, political as distinguished from domestic society does not begin until “every man, by consenting with others to make one body politic under one government, puts himself under an obligation to every one of that society, to submit to the determination of the majority. … This is done by barely agreeing to unite into one political society, which is all the compact that is, or needs be, between the individuals that enter into or make up a commonwealth. And thus that which begins and actually constitutes any political society is nothing but the consent of any number of freemen capable of a majority to unite and incorporate into such a society.”
If it is “that, and that only, which did or could give beginning to any lawful government in the world,” it seems to be equally evident to Locke that “absolute monarchy, which by some men is counted the only government in the world, is indeed inconsistent with civil society, and so can be no form of civil government at all.”
Though Rousseau says that the most ancient of all societies, the family, is “the only one that is natural,” he qualifies this by adding that it remains natural only so long as the children need the family for their preservation. If the members of the family remain united thereafter, “they continue so no longer naturally, but voluntarily; and the family itself is then maintained only by convention.” By the same criterion, civil society would seem to be natural, at least on Rousseau’s own supposition that “the obstacles in the way of their preservation in the state of nature” are greater than the power of isolated individuals or families to maintain themselves, and so “the human race would perish unless it changed its manner of existence.”
Rousseau, furthermore, explicitly denies that the transition from a state of nature to a state of civil society can be treated as an historical fact. It is an hypothesis “calculated to explain the nature of things, [rather] than to ascertain their actual origin.” The social contract, which Rousseau sometimes calls the “first convention,” is, therefore, the legal, not the historical, origin of the state. As he formulates the compact, “each of us puts his person and all his power in common under the supreme direction of the general will, and, in our corporate capacity, we receive each member as an indivisible part of the whole.”
Though “all the qualities of the general will” may “reside in the majority,” so that the general will can be discovered by a majority vote, unanimity is required to create the sovereign body politic, with the right as well as the power to compel “whoever refuses to obey the general will.” Rousseau points out that “the law of majority voting is itself something established by convention, and presupposes unanimity, on one occasion at least.” To this extent Rousseau agrees with Locke about the juridical significance of the original convention or the universal consent which establishes a civil society; and just as Locke calls absolute monarchy inconsistent with the very nature of the state, so Rousseau uses the words “republic” and “body politic” interchangeably. “To be legitimate,” he writes, “the government must be, not one with the sovereign, but its minister.”
But Rousseau identifies government with the executive, rather than primarily with the legislative as Locke does. He therefore denies that the original convention institutes government as well as the body politic itself—“the Sovereign having no force other than the legislative power.” In consequence, Rousseau and Locke differ somewhat in their discussion of the dissolution of government as distinguished from the dissolution of society, or the death of the body politic. Rousseau regards no law as irrevocable, “not excluding the social compact itself; for if all the citizens assembled of one accord to break the compact, it is impossible to doubt that it would be very legitimately broken.”
According to Kant, “a state is the union of a number of men under juridical laws”—the opposite of the state of nature, “in which there is no distributive justice.” It is incumbent on men, says Kant, “to accept the principle that it is necessary to leave the state of nature, in which every one follows his own inclinations, and to form a union of all those who cannot avoid coming into reciprocal communication, and thus subject themselves in common to the external restraint of public compulsory laws.”
Kant refers to this principle as the “postulate of public right” which obliges “all men to enter into the relations of a civil state of society.” The state thus seems to be both necessary and voluntary; for though he says that “the act by which a people is represented as constituting itself into a state is termed the original contract,” yet he also adds that “this is properly only an outward mode of representing the idea by which the rightfulness of the process of organizing the constitution may be made conceivable.”
AGAINST ALL THESE NOTIONS of the original contract, Hegel, criticizing Kant’s treatment of marriage under the concept of contract, says that “it is equally far from the truth to ground the nature of the state on the contractual relation, whether the state is supposed to be a contract of all with all, or of all with the monarch and the government.” Contract, according to Hegel, belongs to the sphere of “relationships concerning private property generally.” Hence “the intrusion of this contractual relation … into the relation between the individual and the state has been productive of the greatest confusion in both constitutional law and public life.”
A contract, Hegel explains, “springs from a person’s arbitrary will, an origin which marriage too has in common with contract. But the case is quite different with the state; it does not lie with an individual’s arbitrary will to separate himself from the state, because we are already citizens of the state by birth. The rational end of man is life in the state, and if there is no state there, reason at once demands that one be founded. Permission to enter a state or leave it must be given by the state; this then is not a matter which depends on an individual’s arbitrary will and therefore the state does not rest on contract, for contract presupposes arbitrariness. It is false to maintain that the foundation of the state is something at the option of all its members. It is nearer the truth to say that it is absolutely necessary for every individual to be a citizen.”
Hegel dismisses all questions concerning historical origins in general or particular as “no concern of the Idea of the state.” In the Idea itself, its antecedents are to be found. The family and civil society are the earlier—logical—moments in the development of the Idea of the State. “Civil society,” Hegel writes, “is the [state of] difference which intervenes between the family and the state, even if its formation follows later in time than that of the state.” The social contract theory applies only to what he calls “civil society,” by which he means the modern conception of the state “as a unity which is only a partnership. … Many modern constitutional lawyers,” Hegel goes on, “have been able to bring within their purview no theory of the state but this. In civil society each member is his own end” and, “except by contract with others, he cannot attain the whole compass of his ends, and therefore these others are means to the end of the particular members.”
In another place, Hegel describes civil society as a system of complete interdependence for the attainment of selfish ends, “wherein the livelihood, happiness, and legal status of one man is interwoven with the livelihood, happiness, and rights of all.” In still another, he observes that only when the state is confused with civil society, only when “its specific end is laid down as the security and protection of property and personal freedom,” does “the interest of the individuals as such become the ultimate end of their association.” Whence “it follows that membership in the state is something optional. But the state’s relation to the individual is quite different from this. Since the state is mind objectified, it is only as one of its members that the individual himself has objectivity, genuine individuality, and an ethical life.”
The unity of the state, unlike that of civil society, is, according to Hegel, “an absolute unmoved end in itself, in which freedom comes into its supreme right. … This final end has supreme right against the individual, whose supreme duty is to be a member of the state.”
IT DOES NOT SEEM to be an inevitable corollary of the social contract theory that the state be conceived as serving the private interests of individuals. “The welfare of the state,” Kant declares, “is its own highest good.” It is not to be understood merely as “the individual well-being and happiness of the citizens of the state; for—as Rousseau asserts—this end may perhaps be more agreeably and more desirably attained in the state of nature.” Kant and Locke both affirm a social contract, but where Kant makes the safety of the republic itself the highest law (salus reipublicae suprema lex), Locke makes it the security of the people (salus populi).
“The reason why men enter into society is the preservation of their property,” writes Locke. The property of the individual is insecure in a state of nature; to avoid this insecurity “men unite into societies that they may have the united strength of the whole society to secure and defend their properties.” When Locke says that the chief end of civil society is “the preservation of property,” he does not refer solely to economic goods, but to all the goods to which he thinks man has a natural right—“his life, liberty, and estate.” Men would not quit the state of nature, he writes, “were it not to preserve their lives, liberties and fortunes, and by stated rules of right and property to secure their peace and quiet.”
In the light of Locke’s conception of “property,” his position resembles Hobbes’ statement of the end which men seek in forming a commonwealth: “to live peaceably amongst themselves and be protected against other men” and to get “themselves out from that miserable condition of war” in which life is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
It seems to be in a different sense of property that Rousseau holds that “the foundation of the social compact is property; and its first condition, that everyone should be maintained in the peaceful possession of what belongs to him.” Restricting “property” to economic possessions, Rousseau asks, “Are not all the advantages of society for the rich and powerful?” Society, he observes, “provides a powerful protection for the immense possessions of the rich, and hardly leaves the poor man in quiet possession of the cottage he builds with his own hands.”
This and Adam Smith’s statement that “civil government, so far as it is instituted for the security of property, is in reality instituted for the defence of the rich against the poor, or of those who have some property against those who have none at all,” seem to anticipate the Marxist view of the state as the bulwark of property rights and an instrument of class oppression. If the protection of property and the maintenance of economic inequalities is the sole purpose of the state, then the ultimate resolution of the class war in favor of a classless society will, in the opinion of Marx and Engels, be accompanied by what they call “the withering away of the state”—an atrophy from loss of function.
But even in a classless society, the state would not cease to function if its end were to secure not merely the individual’s wealth, but his whole well-being. Then, however, we must face another question—whether the happiness of the individual is the end of the state. Plato, for example, seems to answer this question in opposite ways.
In the Protagoras, it is said that “the desire for self-preservation gathered men into cities.” This is part of the Promethean legend of the origin of civilization. As told by Aeschylus—and in a similar account of early history by Lucretius—the story intimates that men contract to live together for protection against violence and to enjoy a better life—the fruits of civil society or civilization.
But in the Republic, Socrates says that, in constructing the ideal state, the aim is “not the disproportionate happiness of any one class, but the greatest happiness of the whole.” To the objection of Adeimantus that the citizens may be miserable in such a state, Socrates replies that we must consider whether “we would look to their greatest happiness individually, or whether this principle of happiness does not rather reside in the State as a whole.” Later Socrates reminds Glaucon, who wonders whether the members of the guardian (or ruling) class will not be unhappy, that we are “fashioning the State with a view to the greatest happiness, not of any particular class, but of the whole.”
Aristotle criticizes Socrates for depriving even the guardians of happiness and for saying that “the legislator ought to make the whole state happy.” In his own view, “the whole cannot be happy unless most, or all, or some of its parts enjoy happiness. In this respect, happiness is not like the even principle in numbers, which may exist only in the whole, but in neither of the parts.” When Aristotle asserts that “the state exists for the sake of a good life,” he seems to have the happiness of individuals in mind, for he excludes slaves and brute animals from membership in the state on the ground that they can have “no share in happiness or in a life of free choice.”
But Aristotle also seems to give the state preeminence over the individual. “Even if the end is the same for a single man and for a state,” he writes, “that of the state seems at all events something greater and more complete, whether to attain or to preserve.” This does not seem to him inconsistent with thinking that that “form of government is best in which every man, whoever he is, can act best and live happily.”
Nor is Hegel reluctant to embrace both horns of the dilemma. Civil society rather than the state in its perfect realization seems to be devoted to the “attainment of selfish ends,” such as individual happiness. But Hegel also says it is “perfectly true” that “the end of the state is the happiness of the citizens. … If all is not well with them, if their subjective aims are not satisfied, if they do not find that the state as such is the means to their satisfaction, then the footing of the state is itself insecure.”
THE FOREGOING CONSIDERATIONS of the nature, origin, and end of political society enter into the various conceptions of the ideal state which appear in the tradition of Western thought. They also have a bearing on the division of social classes in the state, on the duties of the statesman or prince, and the principles of statecraft—the art or science of the ruler. Finally, they have implications for the relation of states to one another and for the different historic formations of the state.
All the modern writers who make some distinction between the state of nature and the state of civil society seem to agree that independent or sovereign states in their relation to one another are in a state of nature. Identifying the state of nature with the state of war, Hobbes remarks that “though there had never been any time, wherein particular men were in a condition of war one against another, yet in all times, kings and persons of sovereign authority” are “in the state and posture of gladiators … which is the posture of war.”
Similarly, to the question, “Where are or ever were there any men in a state of nature?” Locke replies, “all princes and rulers of independent governments all through the world are in a state of nature.” Because “bodies politic” remain “in a state of nature among themselves,” they experience, according to Rousseau, “all the inconveniences which had obliged individuals to forsake it.” With the same intent, Montesquieu observes that “princes who live not among themselves under civil law are not free; they are governed by force; they may continually force or be forced.”
In Kant’s opinion, “states, viewed as nations in their external relations to one another—like lawless savages—are naturally in a non-juridical condition,” and he adds that “this natural condition is a state of war.” Similarly, Hegel writes that “since the sovereignty of a state is the principle of its relations to others, states are to that extent in a state of nature in relation to each other.”
On any of the theories concerning the origin of the state, it may be asked why political society cannot be enlarged to include all mankind. If, for example, in Aristotle’s view, the state is a union of villages, as the village is a union of families, why may not a further expansion of political society be brought about by a union of states?
The question is not simply one of geographical limits or extent of population. The modern national state, though normally larger than the ancient city-state, remains an individual state and in the same external relationship to other states. Even the expansion of a city-state like Rome, at the greatest extent of its imperial domain, does not exemplify the principle of the world-state unless it is proposed that the political unification of mankind be brought about by conquest and maintained by despotism.
Though Aristotle describes the state as formed by a combination of villages, he does not propose a combination of states to form a larger community. His reason may be that the essence of the state lies in its self-sufficiency. Consequently, “the best limit of the population of a state is the largest number which suffices for the purposes of life, and can be taken in at a single view”; and the territory need be no larger than one which enables the population to be “most entirely self-sufficing.”
The moderns, in contrast, propose the expansion of the political community by the amalgamation of separate political units. Montesquieu, for example, suggests that by entering into a “confederate republic,” a number of small states can obtain the security which none of them has by itself. “If a republic be small,” he writes, “it is destroyed by a foreign force; if it be large, it is ruined by an internal imperfection.” A confederate republic, he thinks, “has all the internal advantages of a republican, together with the external force of a monarchical, government. … This form of government,” Montesquieu continues, “is a convention by which several petty states agree to become members of a larger one, which they intend to establish. It is a kind of assemblage of societies, that constitute a new one, capable of increasing by means of further associations, till they arrive at such a degree of power as to be able to provide for the security of the whole body.”
It is not security against external aggression, but internal peace, which leads Rousseau to propose an association more extensive than anything Montesquieu seems to have in mind—a confederation of all the states of Europe. But he does not see beyond Europe to all the states of the world. He regards “the great city of the world” as something less than a political society with civil laws, for he speaks of it as “the body politic whose general will is always the law of nature.”
Nor are the American Federalists, Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, able, at the end of the 18th century, to envisage the unlimited extension of the principle of federal union. They content themselves with arguing for the possibility of so extensive a union as the projected United States of America, against those who quoted “the observations of Montesquieu on the necessity of a contracted territory for a republican government.”
Before our own day Kant alone seems to contemplate the possibility of a world state through federal union. The “cosmopolitical ideal,” he says, is “a universal union of states analogous to that by which a nation becomes a state.” The postulate of reason which obliges men to quit the state of nature and form a civil union applies to states as well. “The natural state of nations, as well as of individual men,” Kant writes, “is a state which it is a duty to pass out of, in order to enter into a legal state.” But the ideal is impracticable in Kant’s opinion—again because of the supposed limits of government with respect to extended territories and populations.
“With the too great extension of such a union of states over vast regions, any government of it, and consequently the protection of its individual members, must at last become impossible.” Kant therefore proposes as an alternative a “permanent congress of nations,” but one which, being “a voluntary combination of states … would be dissolvable at any time”—a mere league or confederacy, and not such a federal union “as is embodied in the United States of America, founded upon a political constitution, and therefore indissoluble.”
The further implications of Kant’s proposal, the alternative it replaces, and Hegel’s objections to either, are discussed in the chapter on WAR AND PEACE. Here it seems appropriate to conclude with that vision of the world state which appears early in the tradition of the great books. It is conceived not as a world-wide federal union, but as a universal or unlimited community in which all men are citizens together even as they belong to one human brotherhood.
“If our intellectual part is common,” argues the philosophical Roman Emperor, Marcus Aurelius, “the reason also, in respect of which we are rational beings, is common; if this is so, common also is the reason which commands us what to do, and what not to do; if this is so, there is a common law also; if this is so, we are fellow-citizens; if this is so, we are members of some political community; if this is so, the world is in a manner a state.”
Centuries later Dante, in the first book of his De Monarchia, recaptures this ancient vision of the world state. Because “a plurality of authorities is disorder,” authority must be single; and therefore, Dante argues, “world government is necessary … for the well-being of the world.” It must be conceived as governing “mankind on the basis of what all have in common.” By that “common law, it leads all toward peace.”
OUTLINE OF TOPICS
1. The nature of human society * 1a. Comparison of human and animal gregariousness: human and animal societies * 1b. Comparison of the family and the state in origin, structure, and government * 1c. Associations intermediate between the family and the state: the village or tribal community; civil society as the stage between family and state * 1d. Social groups other than the family or the state: religious, charitable, educational, and economic organizations; the corporation
2. The general theory of the state * 2a. Definitions of the state or political community: its form and purpose * (1) Comparison of the state and the soul: the conception of the state as a living organism; the body politic * (2) The state as a corporate person * (3) The progressive realization of the state as the process of history: the state as the divine idea as it exists on earth; the national spirit * 2b. The state as a part or the whole of society * 2c. The source or principle of the state’s sovereignty: the sovereignty of the prince; the sovereignty of the people * 2d. The economic aspect of the state: differentiation of states according to their economic systems * 2e. The political structure of the state: its determination by the form of government * 2f. The primacy of the state or the human person: the welfare of the state and the happiness of its members * 2g. Church and state: the relation of the city of God to the city of man
3. The origin, preservation, and dissolution of the state * 3a. The development of the state from other communities * 3b. The state as natural or conventional or both * (1) Man as by nature a political animal: the human need for civil society * (2) Natural law and the formation of the state * 3c. The condition of man in the state of nature and in the state of civil society: the state of war in relation to the state of nature * 3d. The social contract as the origin of civil society or the state: universal consent as the basis of the constitution or government of the state * 3e. Love and justice as the bond of men in states: friendship and patriotism * 3f. Fear and dependence as the cause of social cohesion: protection and security * 3g. The identity and continuity of a state: the dissolution of the body politic or civil society
4. The physical foundations of society: the geographical and biological conditions of the state * 4a. The territorial extent of the state: its importance relative to different forms of government * 4b. The influence of climate and geography on political institutions and political economy * 4c. The size, diversity, and distribution of populations: the causes and effects of their increase or decrease
5. The social structure or stratification of the state * 5a. The political distinction between ruling and subject classes, and between citizens and denizens * 5b. The family as a member of the state: its autonomy and its subordination * 5c. The classes or sub-groups arising from the division of labor or distinctions of birth: the social hierarchy * 5d. The conflict of classes within the state * (1) The opposition of social groups: the treatment of national, racial, and religious minorities * (2) The clash of economic interests and political factions: the class war * 5e. The classless society
6. The ideal or best state: the contrast between the ideal state and the best that is historically real or practicable * 6a. The political institutions of the ideal state * 6b. The social and economic arrangements of the ideal state
7. Factors affecting the quality of states * 7a. Wealth and political welfare * 7b. The importance of the arts and sciences in political life * 7c. The state’s concern with religion and morals: the cultivation of the virtues * 7d. The educational task of the state: the trained intelligence of the citizens
8. The offices of state: the statesman, king, or prince * 8a. The duties of public office and the responsibilities of office holders: the relation of the statesman or king to the people he represents or rules * 8b. The qualities or virtues necessary for the good statesman or king * 8c. The education or training of the statesman or prince * 8d. Statecraft: the art or science of governing; political prudence * (1) The employment of the military arts * (2) The occasions and uses of rhetoric * (3) The role or function of experts in the service of the state * 8e. The advantages and disadvantages of participation in political life
9. The relation of states to one another * 9a. Commerce and trade between states: commercial rivalries and trade agreements; free trade and tariffs * 9b. Social and cultural barriers between states: the antagonism of diverse customs and ideas * 9c. Honor and justice among states * 9d. The sovereignty of independent states: the distinction between the sovereignty of the state at home and abroad; internal and external sovereignty * 9e. War and peace between states * (1) The military problem of the state: preparation for conquest or defense * (2) Treaties between states: alliances, leagues, confederacies, or hegemonies * 9f. Colonization and imperialism: the economic and political factors in empire
10. Historic formations of the state: the rise and decline of different types of states * 10a. The city-state * 10b. The imperial state * 10c. The feudal state * 10d. The national state * 10e. The federal state: confederacies and federal unions * 10f. The ideal of a world state
REFERENCES
To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 Homer: Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d, the number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the passage is in section d of page 12.
Page Sections: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 JAMES: Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.
Author’s Divisions: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as Part, BK, CH, SEC) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in certain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d.
Bible References: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTAMENT: Nehemiah, 7:45—(D) II Esdras, 7:46.
Symbols: The abbreviation “esp” calls the reader’s attention to one or more especially relevant parts of a whole reference; “passim” signifies that the topic is discussed intermittently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.
For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.
1. The nature of human society
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 99a-101a 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 316c-319c; BK V, 356c; 363b-365d / Laws, BK III, 664a-666c 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK VIII, CH 12 [1161b11-15] 413d-414a / Politics, BK I, CH 1-2 445a-446d; BK II, CH 1-2 455b,d-456c; BK III, CH 1 [1274b32-1275a3] 471b; CH 3 [1276a1-12] 473b-c; CH 4 [1276b17-35] 473c-d; CH 6 [1278b15-29] 475d-476a 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 23 128c-d; BK II, CH 20, 165a-d 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 1 256b,d; BK IV, SECT 4 264a; BK V, SECT 16 271c-d; BK VII, SECT 13 280c; SECT 55 283b-c; BK VIII, SECT 34 288a-b; BK IX, SECT 9 292b-d; SECT 23 293c; BK XI, SECT 8 303a-b 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I, CH 21, 161b-162d; BK XII, CH 27 359c-360a,c; BK XIX, CH 5 513d-514b; CH 13-17 519a-523a; CH 21 524a-525b; CH 24 528b-c 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 96, A 4 512d-513c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 94, A 2 221d-223a; Q 96, A 4, ANS 233a-d; Q 100, A 2, ANS 252b-253a 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, VIII [94-148] 118a-c 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20c-d 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 35-37 433b-436a 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 4c-d / Civil Government, CH VII 42b-46c; CH IX, SECT 128 54b-c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XI, 69a 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 369b-370a / Social Contract, BK II, 395a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 96a; 194a-b; 198d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 402c; 433d-434b; 435c-436b 43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 460a-c 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 237a-b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE I, 685d-686b 54 FREUD: Group Psychology 664a-696a,c esp 664b-674a, 677a-678d, 684b-689b
1a. Comparison of human and animal gregariousness: human and animal societies
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [487b33-488a14] 8d-9a; BK IX, CH 1 [608b26-37] 134b; CH 2 136a-b; CH 40 149a-153a / Ethics, BK VIII, CH 12 [1162a16-25] 414c / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253a7-18] 446b-c; BK III, CH 9 [1280a31-34] 477d-478a 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK IX, SECT 9 292b-d 13 VIRGIL: Georgics, IV [149-227] 87a-89b / Aeneid, BK I [418-440] 114b-115a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 54c; PART II, 100a-c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 228b-229a 26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT I, SC II [175-220] 535d-536b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VII, SECT 78-80 42b-43a 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART IV 135a-184a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 1d-2a; 2d 43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 469c-d 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 282a-284a 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 304b-310d esp 308a-d, 310a-d; 321b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XI, 499c-500c; BK XV, 634a; EPILOGUE I, 683b-684a 54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 669a-b; 684d-686c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 791d-792a
1b. Comparison of the family and the state in origin, structure, and government
5 ARISTOPHANES: Lysistrata [486-590] 589a-590d 7 PLATO: Crito, 216d-217d / Republic, BK V, 360d-365d / Statesman, 581a-c / Laws, BK I, 641a-642b; BK III, 664a-666c esp 666b-c; 670d-671a 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK V, CH 6 [1134b8-17] 382b-c; BK VI, CH 8 [1141b28-1142a11] 390d-391a; BK VIII, CH 10 [1160b23]-CH 11 [1161a10] 413a-d; CH 12 [1162a16-18] 414c / Politics, BK I, CH 1-2 445a-446d; CH 7 [1255b16-20] 449b; CH 12 [1259a33-1259b16] 453d-454a; BK II, CH 2 455d-456c; CH 5 [1263b30-35] 459a; BK III, CH 6 [1278b30-1279a2] 476a-b; CH 14 [1285b29-33] 484a 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-b 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 12, 517c-d; CH 13-17 520a-523a 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 92, A 1, REP 2 488d-489d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 90, A 3, REP 3 207a-c; Q 105, A 4, REP 5 318b-321a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 67d-68a; 86a; PART II, 99b-d; 109c-111b; 121a; 155b 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 34a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH I, SECT 2 25c; CH VI-VII 36a-46c; CH VIII, SECT 105-112 48c-51b; CH XIV, SECT 162 63a; CH XV 64c-65d passim 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 216b; 410a-411a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 3b; BK IV, 13b; BK XVI, 118b-c; BK XIX, 140a-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 357a-b / Political Economy, 367a-368c; 377a / Social Contract, BK I, 387d-388a; BK III, 411c-d; 414c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 412c-413b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 82b-83c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 170 60d; par 203 68a-c; par 256-257 79d-80b; par 303 101c-102a; par 349 111d-112a; ADDITIONS, 47 124a-b; 113 135a-b; 157 142b-c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 172b-d; PART I, 211a-212c; 246d-247b; PART III, 288c-289d 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 308b-d 54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 664b-d; 686c-689a / Civilization and Its Discontents, 781d-782d
1c. Associations intermediate between the family and the state: the village or tribal community; civil society as the stage between family and state
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK IV, 132a-b; 154b-158d 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 391c-d 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 316c-319a / Laws, BK I, 641a-b; BK III, 664a-666c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1252b10-30] 445d-446a 14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 9a-d / Romulus, 22b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 85d-86a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VII, SECT 102 48a-b; SECT 105-112 48c-51b; CH X, SECT 133 55b 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 267a-c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XVIII, 126d-134d passim 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 349c-d / Social Contract, BK III, 411c-d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 309c-311c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 91b-d; 95b-96c; 412c-413b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 33a-34b; 223c-224a 42 KANT: Science of Right, 434a; 452a-b 43 MILL: Representative Government, 352b-353a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 157 57d; par 172 61a; par 181-256 63c-80a esp par 181 63c-d, par 188 65c-d, par 256 79d-80a; ADDITIONS, 20 119d-120b; 109 134a; 116-117 135c-136a; 146 140b-c; 157 142b-c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 172b-d; 194c-195a; PART I, 237b-c; 245d-247b; PART II, 260c-261a; PART III, 287a-d 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 581a-b 50 MARX: Capital, 174d-175c 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 419b [fn 2] 54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 686c-687d; 692a-b / Civilization and Its Discontents, 782c
1d. Social groups other than the family or the state: religious, charitable, educational, and economic organizations; the corporation
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 56d-57b 14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 58c 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, II [97-120] 110b-c; XI-XII 122a-125a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 117b-122b; PART III, 198a-d; PART IV, 269b 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 4b-c 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART III, 106a-b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XX, 149a-c; BK XXI, 170d; BK XXIII, 199b-200a,c 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 369b-370a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 28b-d; 51a-56b; BK V, 343b,d-346b; 357c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 191c-200a esp 191c, 194a-195c, 198d-199a; 299b-304d esp 299c-d; 668d-670b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 389b-390b 42 KANT: Science of Right, 442c-d; 444a-c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 201 68a; par 229 75b; par 235 76a; par 249-256 78c-80a; par 264 84a; par 288-289 97a-d; par 302-303 101a-102a; par 308 102c-103a; ADDITIONS, 151 141b-c; 174 146d-147b / Philosophy of History, PART IV, 335a-336c; 340d-341c; 342c-d 50 MARX: Capital, 149c-150a 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 423c-d 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 198b-203a; EPILOGUE I, 685d-686a 54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 670b-c; 674b-676d
2. The general theory of the state
2a. Definitions of the state or political community: its form and purpose
7 PLATO: Republic, BK I-II, 301c-319a; BK IV, 342a-344a; BK V, 356c; 363b-365d / Laws, BK IV, 678b-c; BK IX, 754a-b; BK XII, 795b-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 2 339b-d / Politics, BK I, CH 1 [1252a1-6] 445a; CH 2 [1252b27-1253a39] 446a-d; BK II, CH 1 [1260b37]-CH 2 [1261a15] 455b,d-456c; CH 5 [1263b30-1264a10] 459a-b; BK III, CH 1 [1274b32-40] 471b; CH 3 [1276a7]-CH 4 [1276b35] 473a-d; CH 6 [1278b15-29] 475d-476a; CH 9 [1280a31-1281a2] 477d-478c; CH 12 [1282b15-18] 480c; BK VII, CH 8 532c-533a 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VI [847-853] 233b-234a 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I, CH 21 161b-162d; BK IV, CH 4 190d; BK XIX, CH 21-24 524a-528c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 90, A 2 206b-207a; Q 96, A 1 230d-231c; Q 100, A 2 252b-253a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b; PART I, 71d-73a; 97c-d; PART II, 99a-104d; 116c-d; 148b; 153a 27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT I, SC III [75-137] 108d-109c 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 34a 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2 435b-436a 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3a; 16c-17a / Civil Government, CH VII, SECT 87-90 44a-45a; CH VIII, SECT 95-99 46c-47c; CH IX 53c-54d; CH X, SECT 133 55b; CH XI 55b-58b passim, esp SECT 136 56c-d; CH XIX, SECT 217 75a; SECT 222 75d-76c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 3b-c; BK XI, 69a-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 368d-369a; 370b-c; 374b-c; 380d-381a; 381c-382b / Social Contract, BK I, 391b-393b; BK II, 395a-b; 396d-398b; BK III, 417d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 91b; 96a 42 KANT: Science of Right, 408c-409c; 435a-436c; 438d-439a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 29, 101a; NUMBER 41, 132c; NUMBER 43, 141d; NUMBER 51, 164c-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 256-258 79d-81c; par 260 82a-83a; par 267 84b; par 270 84d-89c; ADDITIONS, 161-162 143a-144c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 170c-178a; PART I, 230a-c; PART IV, 321a 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780b-d
2a(1) Comparison of the state and the soul: the conception of the state as a living organism; the body politic
7 PLATO: Republic, BK II-IV, 316a-356a; BK V, 363b-364b; BK VIII 401d-416a esp 402b-c / Laws, BK III, 669d-670b; BK XII, 794b-796d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 5 [1254a24-b4] 447d-448a; CH 13 [1260a4-20] 454c-d; BK III, CH 4 [1277a5-13] 474a; BK IV, CH 4 [1290b21-40] 489d-490a; [1291a24-33] 490c; BK VII, CH 8 [1328b21-25] 532c-d 14 PLUTARCH: Coriolanus, 177a-b / Agesilaus, 495c-d / Phocion, 605a-b / Agis, 648b,d-649b / Aratus, 834d 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK III, CH 10, 172d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b; PART II, 107d; 116c-d; 117b; 122b-124b; 126b-d; 148b-153a 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 504c-505d 27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT I, SC I [67-167] 352a-353a 28 HARVEY: Motion of the Heart, 267a-b 32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 407b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XIX, SECT 212 74a-b 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART III, 112a-115b 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 215b-216b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK X, 61b,d-62a 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 368d-369a / Social Contract, BK III, 407a; 418a-c; 419c-420a 42 KANT: Judgement, 547b-c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 30, 101b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 269 84d; par 271 89c; par 278 92c-93a; ADDITIONS, 157 142b-c; 161 143a-b; 168 145c-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 174d; 188a-b; PART I, 222a-c; PART III, 302d-303c; PART IV, 321a
2a(2) The state as a corporate person
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 97c-d; PART II, 100c-101a; 101d-102c; 104a-b; 117b-120c; 122b-c; 130b-d; 132a-b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VIII, SECT 95-99 46c-47c 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 368d-369a / Social Contract, BK I, 392a; 392c-393b; BK II, 395a-b; 396d-397a; BK III, 406b,d-409a passim, esp 406b,d-407a; 412c; 418a-c; 419c-420a 42 KANT: Science of Right, 452b; 454b-c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III 85a-114a,c; ADDITIONS, 191 150a-c
2a(3) The progressive realization of the state as the process of history: the state as the divine idea as it exists on earth; the national spirit
46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 256-259 79d-82a; par 270 84d-89c; par 340-360 110b-114a,c esp par 349 111d-112a; ADDITIONS, 19-20 119c-120b; 152 141c-d; 164 144c-145a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 170c-178a esp 171b, 176d-177a; 180c-182c; 203b-206a,c; PART I, 230a-231b; 257c-258d; PART II, 266a-267a; 271c-d; PART III, 287a-288b; PART IV, 327d-328a; 333b-c; 351d-354a; 357b-c
2b. The state as a part or the whole of society
7 PLATO: Republic, BK V, 364c-365d / Laws, BK XI, 776c 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK VIII, CH 9 [1160a8-30] 412b-c / Politics, BK VII, CH 8 [1328b2-22] 532d-533a; BK VIII, CH 1 [1337a28-30] 542b 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 17 522b-523a 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 21, A 4, REP 3 719d-720a,c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 96, A 4, ANS 233a-d; PART II-II, Q 10, A 10 434c-435c; Q 12, A 2 443b-444b 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 2d-3c; 7c; 16a-c / Civil Government, CH XI, SECT 138-140 57b-58a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 299b-d 43 MILL: Liberty, 271c-d; 272d-273d; 302d-312a; 320c-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 162 143b-144c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 174a-d; 175d-176c; 177b-178a; 182d-183a; PART IV, 316a-d; 333b-c
2c. The source or principle of the state’s sovereignty: the sovereignty of the prince; the sovereignty of the people
OLD TESTAMENT: Judges, 8:22-23 / I Samuel, 8—(D) I Kings, 8 / II Samuel, 2:4—(D) II Kings, 2:4 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK III, CH 1 [1275a22-b21] 472a-c; CH 3 [1276a40-b1] 473b; BK IV, CH 9 [1294a34-39] 494d 14 PLUTARCH: Tiberius Gracchus, 678b-d 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK I, 197a-c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 90, A 3 207a-c; Q 96, A 6, ANS 235a-d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 71d-73a; 97c-d: PART II, 100c-105c; 109b-c; 117c-d; 130d; 149d-150b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VIII, SECT 95-99 46c-47c; CH IX, SECT 127 54a-b; CH X, SECT 132 55a-b; CH XI, SECT 135 55d-56b; SECT 141 58a-b; CH XIII, SECT 149 59b-d; CH XIV, SECT 163 63a-b; CH XV, SECT 171 65a-b; CH XVI, SECT 179 66d-67a; CH XVII, SECT 198 70d-71a; CH XIX, SECT 243 81d 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 3b-c; BK II, 4b; 7c-d; BK XV, 109c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323d / Social Contract, BK I, 392a-393b; BK II, 395a-d; 396d-397a; 399b-400c; BK III, 406b,d-409a; 424a-b 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 51c-d; 100d; 241b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 74c-d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 436c; 437c-d; 439a-441d; 445a-c; 448b-d; 450a-b; 451c-d 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [1-25] 1a-b; [43-47] 2a; [109-121] 3a-b 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE 11a,c; AMENDMENTS, IX-X 17d-18a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 22, 84d-85a; NUMBER 33, 108b-c; NUMBER 39, 126b-128b; NUMBER 46, 150b-c; NUMBER 49, 159c; NUMBER 84, 252b-c 43 MILL: Liberty, 267d-269c / Representative Government, 344d; 355b-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 275 92a-b; par 279 93a-94d; par 320-321 106c-d; ADDITIONS, 167 145c / Philosophy of History, PART II, 272b-273a; PART IV, 355c-d; 365a-366b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 680b-684a passim
2d. The economic aspect of the state: differentiation of states according to their economic systems
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 350d-351a; 352c-d 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 316c-319c; BK III, 341c-d; BK V, 364c-365d / Laws, BK V, 692d-697a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 11 [1259a23-36] 453c-d; BK II, CH 1 [1260b37-1261a8] 455b,d; CH 5 458a-460a; CH 6 [1265a28-b18] 460c-461a; CH 7 461d-463c; CH 8 [1267b30-36] 463c-d; [1268a16-b4] 464a-b; CH 9 [1270a15-b6] 466b-c; BK III, CH 9 [1280a16-32] 478b-c; BK V, CH 9 [1309b14-1310a2] 511d-512b; BK VI, CH 4 522a-523b; CH 8 [1321a12-34] 525b-c; BK VII, CH 8-10 532c-534d 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-48d / Solon 64b,d-77a,c / Tiberius Gracchus 671b,d-681a,c / Caius Gracchus 681b,d-689a,c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 94d-95a; PART II, 124b-126d; 156c-157a 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16a-c / Civil Government, CH V, SECT 38 33b-c; SECT 45 34d-35a; CH VI, SECT 72-73 40d-41a; CH VIII, SECT 117 52b; SECT 120-121 52d-53b; CH XI, SECT 138-140 57b-58a 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 215b-216b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK IV, 16a-17b; BK V, 19a-21d; 23a-25c; 27d-28a; 29b-30a; BK VII, 44a-48a; BK XIV, 105a; BK XV, 109a-b; 110d-112d; BK XX, 147a-d; BK XXI-XXII, 151b-153d; BK XXIII, 174a-b; 183b-184b 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 377b-385a,c / Social Contract, BK II, 405c-d; BK III, 415b-417c; 421c-d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK III 163a-181a,c esp 165a-166b, 176a-181a,c; BK IV 182a-300d esp 182a-b, 188a-190b, 193a, 195a, 225d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 21c-22c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 11-13 53b-60a passim; NUMBER 21, 79b-80c; NUMBER 30, 101b; NUMBER 35 112a-114c; NUMBER 54 170a-172b passim 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 299 99c-100b 50 MARX: Capital, 163a-c; 171d-176a esp 174c-175c; 275c-278a,c passim 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 416c-d 54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 882c-884c
2e. The political structure of the state: its determination by the form of government
7 PLATO: Republic, BK VIII 401d-416a / Statesman, 598b-604b 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 1 445a-b: BK II, CH 1 455b,d; BK III, CH 3 473a-c; CH 6 [1278b6-14] 475d; CH 13 [1283b5-7] 481c; CH 17 486c-487a; BK IV, CH 3-4 488d-491d esp CH 4 [1290b21-1291b13] 489d-490d; CH 11-12 495b-497b; BK V, CH 9 [1309b14-1310a2] 511d-512b; BK VII, CH 8 532c-533a / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 4 [1360a17-36] 600c-d; CH 8 608a-c 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK IV, 72a-b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 101a-b; 104d-105c; 117b-124b; 138b; 151c-152a; PART III, 228a-b 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VIII, SECT 95-99 46c-47c; CH X, SECT 132-CH XI, SECT 134 55a-d; CH XIX, SECT 211-212 73d-74b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK II-III, 2d-4a; BK XI, 69d-70a 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 359a-d / Social Contract, BK III, 406b,d-409a; 423a-424d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 436b-c; 441b-c; 450a-452a 43 MILL: Representative Government, 327b,d-332d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 273-274 90c-92a; par 276 92b; ADDITIONS, 166 145b-c; 170 145d-146a; 178 147d-148a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 173a-175c; PART IV, 364d-365c
2f. The primacy of the state or the human person: the welfare of the state and the happiness of its members
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes 27a-39a,c esp [1011-1084] 38b-39a,c 5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a-142d esp [162-210] 132c-d / Ajax [1047-1090] 152a-b / Philoctetes 182a-195a,c 5 EURIPIDES: Phoenician Maidens [834-1018] 385c-387b / Iphigenia at Aulis 425a-439d esp [1255-1275] 436c, [1368-1401] 437c-d 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 6c-7a 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 397d-398c; 402b-404a; BK VI, 520a-d 7 PLATO: Crito 213a-219a,c esp 216d-219a,c / Republic, BK I, 302c-306a; BK IV, 342a-d; 350b-d; BK V, 364c-365d; BK VI, 379d-380b; BK VII, 390b-391b; 401a-b / Statesman, 600d-601b / Laws, BK III, 672d-676c; BK V, 692c-693a; BK IX, 754a-b; BK XI, 776c; 777d-778b 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 2 [1094b8-10] 339c-d; BK V, CH 1 [1129b15-18] 377a / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253a19-29] 446c; BK II, CH 5 [1264b16-25] 459d-460a; BK III, CH 4 473c-475a; CH 6 475d-476c; CH 12 [1282b15-18] 480c; BK VII, CH 1-3 527a-530a; CH 8 532c-533a; CH 13 536b-537b; BK VIII, CH 1 [1337a28-30] 542b 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 19 125b-126c; BK II, CH 10 148c-150a 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK V, SECT 1 268b,d; SECT 6 269b-d; SECT 16 271c-d; SECT 22 272b; BK VI, SECT 14 274d-275a; SECT 54 279c; BK IX, SECT 23 293c 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-48d esp 44d-45c / Numa Pompilius, 51c-52b / Solon, 71d / Demosthenes, 699c-700a 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK II, CH 21 161b-162d; BK XIX, CH 17 522b-523a; CH 21 524a-525a 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 60, A 5, ANS 313b-314c; Q 96, A 4 512d-513c; PART I-II, Q 21, A 3 718d-719c; A 4, REP 3 719d-720a,c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 90, A 2 206b-207a; A 3, REP 3 207a-c; Q 92, A 1, ANS and REP 1,3-4 213c-214c; Q 94, A 2, ANS 221d-223a; Q 96, A 3, ANS and REP 3 232b-233a; A 4, ANS 233a-d; Q 98, A 1, ANS 239b-240c; Q 100, A 2, ANS 252b-253a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 93d-94a; PART II, 104a-b; 113d-115a 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 48a-51a passim; 381a-388c; 486b-489b 26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT I, SC II [183-213] 535d-536a 27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT I, SC III [78-134] 109a-c / Coriolanus, ACT I, SC I [67-167] 352a-353a 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 71a-76a passim 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2 435b-436a 32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [843-870] 358a-b 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 11b; 15d; 16d-17b / Civil Government, CH VIII, SECT 95-99 46c-47c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK IV, 16c; BK V, 18d-19d; BK XI, 69a-c; BK XII, 92b-c; BK XXIII, 199c; BK XXVI, 221c-222a 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 368d-369a; 372a-b; 374a-375b; 376a-b / Social Contract, BK I, 391d; 392b-393b; 393d-394d; BK II, 396b-399a; BK III, 421c-423a 42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 272a-273b / Science of Right, 438d-439a 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [1-15] 1a-b 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: PREAMBLE 11a,c; AMENDMENTS, I-X 17a-18a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 43, 143b-c; NUMBER 45, 147c-148a 43 MILL: Liberty, 267b,d-274a; 293b-323a,c esp 297a, 322d-323a,c / Representative Government, 337b; 338b-c; 392b-396d / Utilitarianism, 453a-454a; 460a-461c; 464d-476a,c passim 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 185 64b-d; par 187 65a-c; par 236 76a-c; par 258, 80c-d; par 260-261 82a-83d; par 270 84d-89c; par 288-289 97a-d; par 294 98b-d; par 323 107a; par 328 108b-c; par 337 109d-110a; ADDITIONS, 47 124a-b; 116-118 135c-136b; 127 137b; 143 139d-140a; 145 140b; 154-156 142a-b; 158 142d; 162 143b-144c; 177 147d; 189 149d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 164b; 166b; 170c-172b; 192c-193a; PART II, 271c-d; 276a; PART III, 289b-d; 298c-299a; PART IV, 320c-321a; 365b-c; 366c-367a; 367d-368a 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 429c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK VI, 238c-243d; 260a-262a; BK XI, 505a-511b; 513d-521c esp 513d-515a; 527b-532a,c esp 527b-528b; BK XII, 537b-538a; BK XIII, 577b-c; EPILOGUE I, 670d-671c 54 FREUD: War and Death, 757b-c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 799b-d
2g. Church and state: the relation of the city of God to the city of man
OLD TESTAMENT: Judges, 8:22-23 / I Samuel, 8; 10:18-19,24; 12:12-14,17-19; 13—(D) I Kings, 8; 10:18-19,24; 12:12-14,17-19; 13 / II Chronicles, 19:11—(D) II Paralipomenon, 19:11 / Psalms, 2; 48:1-8; 72:8-11; 87; 127:1-2—(D) Psalms, 2; 47:1-9; 71:8-11; 86; 126:1-2 / Isaiah, 43:15—(D) Isaias, 43:15 / Daniel, 2:44; 4:17,25,32—(D) Daniel, 2:44; 4:14,22,29 APOCRYPHA: Rest of Esther, 14:3—(D) OT, Esther, 14:3 / Wisdom of Solomon, 6:1-4—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 6:2-5 / II Maccabees, 7:30—(D) OT, II Machabees, 7:30 NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 17:24-27; 22:15-22—(D) Matthew, 17:23-26; 22:15-22 / Mark, 12:13-17 / Luke, 20:21-26 / John, 18:33-37 / Acts, 5:27-29 / Romans, 13:1-8 / I Corinthians, 15:24-25 / Ephesians, 2:19 / I Timothy, 2:1-3 / Titus, 3:1 / Hebrews, 13:14 / I Peter, 2:13-17 7 PLATO: Laws, BK X, 757d-761b; 769d-771b 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK VIII, CH 9 [1160a19-29] 412b-c / Politics, BK III, CH 14 [1285a3-7] 483a-b; [1285b20-23] 484a; BK V, CH 11 [1314b36-1315a4] 517d; BK VI, CH 7 [1321a35-b1] 525a; CH 8 [1322b19-29] 526c; BK VII, CH 8 [1328b2-22] 532d-533a; CH 9 [1329a26-34] 533d; CH 10 [1330a8-14] 534c; CH 12 [1331a19-28] 535d; [1331b4-7] 536a 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 30 138a,c; BK II, CH 5, 143d-144a; BK IV, CH 3 224b-d 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK XII [175-194] 358b-359a; [829-842] 376a-b 14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 52d-53a; 57b / Themistocles, 92a-c / Camillus, 114c-116a / Fabius, 142d-143a / Marcellus, 247c-248b / Cleomenes, 659d-660a 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, 59d-60c 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK III, par 15 17a-b / City of God, BK I, PREF-CH 6 129a-132d; BK IV, CH 33-34 206c-207a,c; BK V, CH 15-16 220d-221b; CH 25 228b-c; BK XI, CH 1 322b,d-323a; BK XV-XVIII 397b,d-507a,c esp BK XV, CH 1-5 397b,d-400c, BK XVII, CH 1-3 449a-451c, BK XVIII, CH 1-2 472b,d-473d; BK XIX, CH 5 513d-514b; CH 11 516d-517b; CH 14 520a-d; CH 17 522b-523a; CH 19-26 523b-529a 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 96, A 4 233a-d; Q 100, A 2, ANS 252b-253a; PART II-II, Q 10, AA 10-11 434c-436b; Q 11, A 3 440b-441a; Q 12, A 2 443b-444b 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, II [10-27] 2d; XXXIV [1-69] 51b-52a; PURGATORY, VI [58-151] 61b-62c; XII [85-96] 72d; XVI [52-129] 77b-78a; XXX [100]-XXXII [78] 103c-105a; PARADISE, VI [1-111] 113c-114d 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XI 16d-17d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 80d-81a; 82b-83a; 83d-84c; PART II, 111b-112c; 151a-c; 155d-156b; 163c-d; PART III, 165a-167c; 171c-172a; 177c-180a; 187c-188a; 191b; 193c-d; 198a-246a,c; PART IV, 248a-249b; 251c-252d; 266a-c; 273c-274a; 275a-278d 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 306b-d 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry VI, ACT I, SC III 5b-6c; ACT III, SC I [1-145] 14b-15d / King John 376a-405a,c esp ACT III, SC I 386a-389d, ACT V, SC I [1-24] 399b-c, SC II 400a-401d / 2nd Henry IV, ACT I, SC I [187-215] 470a-b; ACT IV, SC I [1-96] 487b-488b; SC II [1-42] 489d-490a / Henry V, ACT I, SC I 533a-d 27 SHAKESPEARE: Henry VIII 549a-585a,c esp ACT III, SC II 568b-573d 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 27c 32 MILTON: New Forcers of Conscience 68a-b / Lord Gen. Cromwell 69a-b / Paradise Lost, BK XII [485-551] 329b-331a / Areopagitica, 386b-388a 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 2d-21c esp 2d-3a, 7c, 13a-b, 16b, 20d-21c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK III, 7c-8c; BK V, 27d; BK XII, 85c-86a; BK XVIII, 134c-d; BK XIX, 144c-145a; BK XXIII, 196c-197c; BK XXIV-XXV 200a-214a,c; BK XXVI, 214b,d-215a; 218a-219d; BK XXX, 284d-285c; BK XXXI, 298b-308c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 327a-c; 358d-359a / Social Contract, BK II, 401c-402a; BK IV, 435a-439c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 56b-57a; BK IV, 232b; BK V, 343b,d-356d; 357c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 13b-d; 197a-b; 229c-230a; 233d; 289b,d-294a; 299b-304d passim, esp 299b-d, 303c; 328c-330a,c; 349c-351d; 382a-383b; 390c-393d passim, esp 392c; 443d-446b esp 444c-445b; 451d-453a; 457b,d-460b passim; 582c; 611d-612a; 623d-624b; 631d-632a; 642c-643a; 863c [n 68] 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 147d-148c; 195a; 199c-202d; 204b-207a esp 205d-206b; 212d-213d; 214c-215c; 252c-d; 352b-353b: 360b-361b; 381d-383c; 417b-418d; 557c-562b esp 560d-561c; 567c-569d; 582c-589d esp 586a-c, 588b-589d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 442c-d; 444a-c 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: III 5b 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE VI [591-599] 16d; AMENDMENTS, I 17a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 52, 165c; NUMBER 57, 177b 43 MILL: Liberty, 279a-d; 290c-291a / Representative Government, 341a-c; 437d-438b 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 189c-d; 251c; 314c-315b; 445b-c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 270 84d-89c; ADDITIONS, 162 143b-144c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 175c-177b; 192c-d; 205d-206a,c; PART I, 216b-217c; 245d-247b; PART III, 308b-c; 309d-310c; 311b-d; PART IV, 316a-d; 321b-322a; 325d-326b; 331b-d; 333b-c; 336c-337d; 345c-346c; 350b-c; 351b-354a; 365b-c 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [10,977-11,034] 267a-268b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK IX, 354b-c; 374d-377b; BK X, 435c-436c; BK XII, 572d; 574a 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 28d-32a; BK V, 127b-137c passim
3. The origin, preservation, and dissolution of the state
3a. The development of the state from other communities
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 391c-d 7 PLATO: Laws, BK III, 666a-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK VIII, CH 12 [1162a16-19] 414c / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1252b9-1253a1] 445d-446b 12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK V [1011-1027] 74b-c 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 96, A 4 512d-513c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 94, A 2 221d-223a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VIII 46d-53c 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 410a-b 38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK III, 411c-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 181 63c-d; par 258, 80d; par 349 111d-112a / Philosophy of History, PART II, 260b-261a; PART III, 287a-d
3b. The state as natural or conventional or both
7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 316c-319a / Laws, BK III, 663d-666c; BK X, 760a-761d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 2 445b-446d; BK III, CH 6 [1278b15-29] 475d-476a 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK IV, SECT 4 264a; BK VII, SECT 13 280c; BK VIII, SECT 34 288a-b; BK IX, SECT 9 292b-d; BK X, SECT 6 297a-b 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 95, A 4, ANS 229b-230c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b; PART II, 100a-c; 101a-b; 113c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 462d-463a 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 35-37 433b-436a esp PROP 37, SCHOL 2 435b-436a 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 304 227b-228a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH II, SECT 14-15 28b-c; CH VII, SECT 87-89 44a-d; CH VIII 46c-53c; CH XIX, SECT 211 73d-74a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 1c-2d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 358b-c / Political Economy, 367b / Social Contract, BK I, 387b,d-392a; BK II, 399b-c; BK III, 419c-d; 423a-c; 424d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 412c-413a; 433c-434c; 435a-436b; 437c-d; 450d-451a 43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-303a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART II, par 75 31d-32b; PART III, par 203 68a-c; par 280 94d-95a; ADDITIONS, 47 124a-b / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 164b-c 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780b-d
3b(1) Man as by nature a political animal: the human need for civil society
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44a-45a / Republic, BK II, 316c 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK VIII, CH 12 [1162a16-25] 414c; BK IX, CH 9 [1169b18-22] 423b / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1252b27-1253a39] 446a-d; BK III, CH 6 [1278b15-29] 475d-476a 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 23 128c-d 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 1 256b,d; BK IV, SECT 4 264a; SECT 29 266a; BK VII, SECT 13 280c; SECT 55 283b-c; BK VIII, SECT 34 288a-b; SECT 56 290c; SECT 59 290d; BK IX, SECT 9 292b-d; SECT 23 293c; BK X, SECT 6 297a-b; BK XI, SECT 8 303a-b; BK XII, SECT 30 310a-b 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XII, CH 27 359c-360a,c; BK XIX, CH 5 513d-514b; CH 17 522b-523a 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 96, A 4 512d-513c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 94, A 2 221d-223a; Q 96, A 4, ANS 233a-d 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, VIII [91-148] 117d-118c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 84c-86b; 93d-94a; PART II, 99a-100c; CONCLUSION, 279a-c 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 454a 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20c-d 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 18, SCHOL 429a-d; PROP 35, COROL 1-2 433c-d 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH II, SECT 13-15 28a-c; CH VII, SECT 77 42b 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART IV, 159a-163b esp 160a-b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 1d-3a 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 330d-331d; 362c-d / Social Contract, BK I, 387d-388c; BK II, 397a-b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 6, 39a-b; NUMBER 10, 50b-c; NUMBER 15, 65b-d; NUMBER 17, 69c; NUMBER 34, 110c-d; NUMBER 49, 160a; NUMBER 55, 174c-d 43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 460a-461c; 469c-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 183 64a; par 188-195 65c-67a; ADDITIONS, 47 124a-b / Philosophy of History, PART IV, 361c-d 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310a-d; 321b 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 127b-137c passim 54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 684d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 787a-c; 791b-c
3b(2) Natural law and the formation of the state
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 86c-87b; 91a-96b; PART II, 99a-d; 131a 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2 435b-436a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH I-IX 25a-54d passim, esp CH IX 53c-54d; CH XI, SECT 136 56c-d 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 1a-2d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 329a-334a,c esp 330a-331c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 433c-434c 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [1-15] 1a-b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 43, 143b-c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART IV, 361c-d
3c. The condition of man in the state of nature and in the state of civil society: the state of war in relation to the state of nature
7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44a-45a / Laws, BK I, 641a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253a30-39] 446d 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, 51b 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 12, 517d-518c 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 96, A 4 512d-513c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 84c-87b; 90b-d; 94b-c; 96a-b; PART II, 99a-b; 131a-c; 138c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 93b-94a 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20c-d 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2 435b-436a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH I-IX 25a-54d esp CH I-III 25d-29d, CH IX 53c-54d; CH XI, SECT 136-137 56c-57b; CH XII, SECT 145-146 58d-59a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 2b-3a; BK VIII, 52a 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 329a-334a,c; 342c-345c; 354a-b; 355b-c; 362a-366d / Political Economy, 374a-b / Social Contract, BK I, 389d-390a; 391b; 393b-c; BK II, 398a-b; 399b-c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 309a-311c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 86d-87b; 237c-d 42 KANT: Pure Reason, 222b-c / Science of Right, 405d-406c; 408c-409c; 433c-434d; 435c-436b; 450d-451a; 452a-d 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 51, 164c-d 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 204d-205b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 187 65a-c; par 194 66c-d; par 333-334 109b-c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 171c-172b; 199b-c; PART IV, 317d-318a
3d. The social contract as the origin of civil society or the state: universal consent as the basis of the constitution or government of the state
7 PLATO: Crito, 216d-219a,c / Republic, BK II, 311b-c / Laws, BK III, 666b-667d / Seventh Letter, 807a-b 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK III, CH 9 [1270b20-22] 466d; BK IV, CH 9 [1294a34-39] 494d 12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK V [1011-1027] 74b-c 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK IV, CH 4 190d; BK XIX, CH 21 524a-525b; CH 24 528b-c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 90, A 3 207a-c; Q 97, A 3 237b-238b; Q 105, A 2, ANS 309d-316a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 97c-d; PART II, 100c-102c; 109b-c; 113c; 133b; PART III, 200a-b 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2 435b-436a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH II, SECT 14-15 28b-c; CH VII, SECT 87-CH VIII, SECT 122 44a-53c; CH X, SECT 132 55a-b; CH XI, SECT 134 55b-d; SECT 141 58a-b; CH XV, SECT 171 65a-b; CH XVI, SECT 175 65d; SECT 192 69c-d; CH XIX 73d-81d passim, esp SECT 211 73d-74a, SECT 243 81d 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK IX, 58b,d-60a 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 353c-355b; 358b-d / Political Economy, 367b; 370b-c / Social Contract, BK I 387b,d-394d esp 391b-392a; BK II, 400a-c; BK III, 423a-424d 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 403b-c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 412c-413a; 434b-c; 435a-436c; 437c-d; 450d-452a 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [1-15] 1a-b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 1, 29a-b; NUMBER 22, 84d-85a; NUMBER 38, 121b-c; NUMBER 44, 144d-145a 43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-303a / Representative Government, 327b,d-332d passim 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART II, par 75 31d-32b; PART III, par 258, 80d-81b; ADDITIONS, 47 124a-b; 116 135c-d
3e. Love and justice as the bond of men in states: friendship and patriotism
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [332-375] 134a-b 5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [286-364] 260d-261c / Phoenician Maidens [528-567] 382c-d; [991-1018] 387a-b 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VII, 225d-226b; 255c-d; BK VIII, 273d 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 397d-398c; 402b-404a; BK VI, 513d-514b; 534b-c 7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44a-45a / Symposium, 152b-d; 154a-b / Republic, BK I, 308b-309b; BK IV, 346a-356a; BK V, 360d-365d / Laws, BK IV, 678d-679a; BK V, 692b-c; 694d; BK VI, 701a / Seventh Letter, 814b-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK VIII, CH 1 [1155a22-28] 406d; CH 9-12 411d-414d passim; BK IX, CH 6 420c-421a / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253a29-39] 446d; BK II, CH 4 [1262a25-b23] 457b-d; CH 5 [1263b23-b27] 458b-d; BK III, CH 9 [1280b32-1281a2] 477d-478c; BK IV, CH 11 [1295b1-34] 495c-496a 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 11 262a-b 14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 20c-21a / Lycurgus, 36a-b; 44d-45c / Pelopidas, 238d-239d / Dion, 784d-785a 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK IV, 284c-285a 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK II, CH 21 161b-162d; BK IV, CH 4 190d; BK XIX, CH 21 524a-525a; CH 23-24, 528a-c 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, XI [13-90] 15b-16a; XXXII-XXXIV 47c-52d; PURGATORY, VI [58-151] 61b-62c; XV 75b-76d 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 75c 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, APPENDIX, X-XVII 448a-d 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VIII, SECT 107 49b-d / Human Understanding, BK I, CH III, SECT 2 104a-b 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART IV, 165b-166a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, XXI-XXIIIa-d; BK V, 18d-19d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323b-d / Political Economy, 373c-374a; 376a-b / Social Contract, BK III, 421c-422a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 4d 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 14, 62a-d; NUMBER 17, 69c-70d; NUMBER 27, 95c-d; NUMBER 29, 100a-b; NUMBER 46, 150c-151a 43 MILL: Representative Government, 343a; 424c-425b; 428b-c / Utilitarianism, 460a-461c; 464d-476a,c passim, esp 469c-d, 473d-474b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 267-269 84b-d; par 289 97b-d; par 325 107d; ADDITIONS, 160-161 142d-143b / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 172b-d; PART III, 300c-301a; PART IV, 318a; 320c-321a; 334b-c; 365b-c 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 310c-d 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK IX, 384c-388a,c; BK XI, 474a-b; 475b-476c 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK VI, 158b-159a 54 FREUD: Group Psychology, 672a-678d esp 674a, 678a-c; 685d-686c / Ego and Id, 707c-d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 780c; 785d; 791c
3f. Fear and dependence as the cause of social cohesion: protection and security
5 AESCHYLUS: Eumenides [681-710] 88b-c 5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [162-210] 132c-d / Ajax [1047-1090] 152a-b 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 402b-404a 7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44a-45b / Republic, BK II, 311b-c; 316c-319a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK III, CH 6 [1278b15-29] 475d-476a; CH 9 [1280b32-1281a2] 477d-478c; BK V, CH 8 [1308a25-30] 510b-c 12 LUCRETIUS: Nature of Things, BK V [1011-1027] 74b-c 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I, CH 30 147b-d 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH IX, 15b-c; CH XVII, 24a-d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 77a; 77c; 84c-86b; 86d-87b; 90b-d; PART II, 99a-101a; 109b-c; 116c-d 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2 435b-436a 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 16a-c / Civil Government, CH II, SECT 13-15 28a-c; CH VIII, SECT 95 46c-d; CH IX 53c-54d; CH XI, SECT 136-137 56c-57b 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 262a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 2b-d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 354c-355a / Political Economy, 370b-c; 374a-375b; 381c-382b / Social Contract, BK I, 391b-c; BK II, 398a-d; BK III, 417d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 309a-311c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 91b 42 KANT: Science of Right, 435c-436b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 15, 65b-c; NUMBER 29, 101a; NUMBER 51, 163b-c 43 MILL: Representative Government, 422b / Utilitarianism, 471a-b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 261, 83d / Philosophy of History, PART II, 283b-c; PART III, 285a-b; 287a-288b; 289b-d; 300c-301c; PART IV, 328b-330b; 342b-d; 344a-c 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 321b-c 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 127b-137c passim 54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 884a
3g. The identity and continuity of a state: the dissolution of the body politic or civil society
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK III, CH 3 473a-c 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK I, 212b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 116c-d; 148c-153a; 154b-c; CONCLUSION, 280c-281a 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 464c-465c 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XVI, SECT 175 65d; CH XIX 73d-81d passim, esp SECT 211 73d-74a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK X, 62d 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 374b / Social Contract, BK I, 392d; BK II, 395b; BK III, 407c; 408c; 418a-420a 42 KANT: Science of Right, 450d-451b 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [41-47] 2a 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: XIII 9b 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE VI [578-582] 16d 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 43, 142d-143a; NUMBER 84, 254b-c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 269 84d; par 272, 90b-c; par 347 111b-c; ADDITIONS, 161 143a-b 50 MARX: Capital, 175c
4. The physical foundations of society: the geographical and biological conditions of the state
4a. The territorial extent of the state: its importance relative to different forms of government
7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 318c-319a; BK IV, 343d-344a / Laws, BK V, 691d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 6 [1265a10-18] 460b-c; BK III, CH 3 473a-c; BK IV, CH 4 [1291a19-21] 490b-c; CH 15 [1299a32-b10] 500a-b; BK VI, CH 4 [1319b20-22] 522d-523a; BK VII, CH 5 530d-531b 14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 58a-b / Solon, 72d 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 58a-b / Histories, BK II, 224d 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK III, CH 10 172d-173c 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH V, SECT 38 33b-c; SECT 45 34d-35a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK IV, 17a-b; BK VIII, 56b-57c; BK IX, 58b,d-59b; BK XI, 83c-d; BK XVII, 124c-d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323b-c / Political Economy, 380a-b / Social Contract, BK I, 394b-c; BK II, 403a-404c; BK III, 411a; 412a-b; 413a-d; 417b-c; 422d-423a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 1b-3c; 8b-11d; 33d-34a,c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 455c-456a 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: IX [262-274] 7d-8a 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE IV, SECT 3 16b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 1, 30d-31a; NUMBER 2, 31c-d; NUMBER 7, 41d-42d; NUMBER 9, 47c-48d; NUMBER 10, 51c-53a; NUMBER 13-14 59a-62d passim, esp NUMBER 14, 60b-d; NUMBER 28, 97c-98b; NUMBER 37, 120b-d; NUMBER 43, 140d-141a; NUMBER 51, 164d-165a; NUMBER 63, 192d-193a; NUMBER 84, 253d-254b 43 MILL: Liberty, 273b-c / Representative Government, 330a-c; 352a-353a; 432b-c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 296 99a-b / Philosophy of History, PART I, 243c-d; PART II, 273d-274a; PART IV, 342c-d
4b. The influence of climate and geography on political institutions and political economy
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK IX, 314a,c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 349b-d; 352c-d; 372c-d 7 PLATO: Laws, BK IV, 677a-c; BK V, 696d-697a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 10 [1271b30-38] 468a; [1272a40-b2] 468d; [1272b17-20] 469a; BK V, CH 3 [1303a8-18] 505a-b; BK VII, CH 5 [1326b26]-CH 7 [1327b32] 530d-532a; CH 11 [1330a34-b17] 535a-b 10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, par 16 15d-16a 14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 72d / Themistocles, 96b-c 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 224a-b; 295b-296b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 3c-d; BK VII, 46c-47a; BK XIV 102b,d-108d; BK XV, 111a-c; BK XVI, 116a-120a; BK XVII-XVIII 122a-134d; BK XIX, 138b-c; 140c-d; 143d-144b; BK XXI, 153a-154a 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 325b / Social Contract, BK II, 404b-c; 405c-d; BK III, 415b-417c; 422c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 8b-10b; BK III, 173b-c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 83c-d; 87d-91b esp 90c-91b; 236c-237a; 396b-398a passim; 567a-d; 655d-657c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 220b-225a passim, esp 221b-222d, 224b; 338b-c; 341c-343b passim; 355c-d; 427b-428a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 2, 31c-d; NUMBER 5, 38a; NUMBER 8, 46a-47a; NUMBER 11, 55b-56b; NUMBER 12, 57b-58b; NUMBER 24, 88c-89a; NUMBER 25, 89d-90a; NUMBER 38, 124c-d; NUMBER 41, 133c; 134d-135a 43 MILL: Representative Government, 424c-428a passim 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 247 78a-b / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 190b-201a,c esp 194b-196a; PART I, 243d-244c; 248c-249d; 251c-252d; PART II, 259d-260a; 261a; 263d-264a; PART III, 286b 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 323a-b 50 MARX: Capital, 253b-255a
4c. The size, diversity, and distribution of populations: the causes and effects of their increase or decrease
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 22d-23a 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 349b-d; BK II, 391c-392a; 399b-401b 7 PLATO: Republic, BK IV, 343d-344a / Laws, BK III, 663d-667a; BK V, 691d; 693a-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK IX, CH 10 [1170b29-34] 424c / Politics, BK II, CH 6 [1265a10-18] 460b-c; [1265b38-a17] 460d-461a; CH 9 [1270a15-b6] 466b-c; BK III, CH 15 [1286b8-22] 484d-485a; BK IV, CH 6 [1292b41-1293a11] 492c; CH 11 [1296a6-13] 496b; CH 13 [1297b22-28] 498a; BK V, CH 3 [1303a25-b4] 504d-505a; BK VI, CH 6 [1320b39-1321a4] 524c; BK VII, CH 4 530a-d; CH 6 531b-d esp [1327a12-17] 531b 14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 138b-139a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 157a 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 330b-d 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH XIII, SECT 157-158 61c-62b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VII, 46c-47a; BK XVIII, 127a-b; BK XXIII 187b,d-200a,c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365c-366b / Political Economy, 367d; 378b / Social Contract, BK II, 404a-c; BK III, 407c-408b; 413d; 417b-418a; 420b-c; 422d-423a; BK IV, 428b-c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 33c-34b; 71a-d; BK III, 163a-165b; BK IV, 243b,d-244a; BK V, 384b-d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 17d-18a; 88a-c; 90c-d; 239a-d; 486c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 108d-109a; 221b-c 42 KANT: Pure Reason, 229d-230a 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [48-51] 2a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 2, 31d; NUMBER 10, 52a-53a; NUMBER 13, 59b-c; NUMBER 54 170a-172b passim; NUMBER 55, 172b-173c; NUMBER 56 174d-176d; NUMBER 58 179c-182a passim 43 MILL: Liberty, 319b-d / Representative Government, 424c-428a passim 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 172b-c; 373c-374a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 243 77b-c / Philosophy of History, PART II, 263b-d; PART III, 286b; PART IV, 318c-319b 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 275d-277c; 323b-327a; 383b-384d; 391d-394a,c 50 MARX: Capital, 172b-c; 249a-250a; 312c-313a; 317c-319a; 348a-350d; 360a-364a 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 421c-d
5. The social structure or stratification of the state
5a. The political distinction between ruling and subject classes, and between citizens and denizens
5 SOPHOCLES: Ajax [1226-1315] 153c-154b 5 ARISTOPHANES: Frogs [686-705] 572a-b 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 28c-29a 7 PLATO: Republic, BK III-IV, 339b-350a / Laws, BK VIII, 742c-d; BK XI, 774d-775a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 13 [1259b33-1260a20] 454b-d; BK II, CH 5 [1264a11-b25] 459b-460a; CH 6 [1265a18-21] 461a; BK III, CH 1-5 471b,d-475d passim; BK IV, CH 4 489b-491d; BK VII, CH 2 [1324a14-17] 528a; CH 4 [1326a17-24] 530b; CH 6 [1327b7-14] 531d; CH 8-9 532c-533d / Athenian Constitution, CH 7 555c-556a 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 46c-47a / Lycurgus-Numa, 62b-c 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK XI, 106a-107b 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 98, A 6, REP 2 244c-245b; Q 104, A 4 306d-307c; Q 105, A 3, REP 2 316a-318b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 108d-109a 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH I, SECT 9 27a-b; CH VIII, SECT 122 53b-c 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XV, 109a-b; 110a; 112c-d; 114c-115b 38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK I, 392b [fn 1]; BK III, 420b-c; BK IV, 426b-c; 427c; 428b-430a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 269d-271a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 14a-15c passim; 16c-17d; 147a-b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 81d-82b; 404d 42 KANT: Science of Right, 436d-437c 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: IV [17-36] 5b-c 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 8 [204-206] 13b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 42, 138d-139c; NUMBER 43, 142b-c; NUMBER 54, 171a-b 43 MILL: Representative Government, 345c-346a; 366a-370a; 380c-389b passim 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, PART II, 273c
5b. The family as a member of the state: its autonomy and its subordination
5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [1011-1084] 38b-39a,c 5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone 131a-142d 5 EURIPIDES: Iphigenia at Aulis [1255-1275] 436c; [1368-1401] 437c-d 5 ARISTOPHANES: Ecclesiazusae [611-650] 622a-c 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK IV, 139a-b; BK VII, 223c-d 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 398c-d 7 PLATO: Republic, BK V, 360d-365d / Statesman, 608a-d / Laws, BK III, 665d-666c; BK VI, 707b-708c; BK VII, 721d; BK XI, 775d-781c 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK X, CH 9 [1180a25-b13] 435a-b / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253a19-29] 446c; CH 13 [1260b8-19] 455c; BK II, CH 2-3 455d-457a; CH 9 [1269b13-1270a6] 465d-466c; BK III, CH 9 [1280b30-1281a2] 478c 14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 21a-26b / Lycurgus, 39a-41a / Numa Pompilius, 58d / Lycurgus-Numa, 62d-64a / Cato the Younger, 629a-c 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK I, 32b-d; BK III, 51a; 51d-52a; BK XV, 162b-c 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 16 521d-522a 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 90, A 3, REP 3 207a-c; Q 95, A 1, ANS 226c-227c; Q 104, A 4, ANS 306d-307c; Q 105, A 4 318b-321a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 121a; 155b 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 344a-c 35 LOCKE: Civil Government, CH VI 36a-42a; CH VII, SECT 83 43b-c; CH XVI, SECT 180-183 67b-68b; SECT 188-192 69a-d 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART I, 29b-31a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK IV, 13b; BK V, 22d-23a; BK XIX, 140a-c; BK XXIII, 189b-c; 192d-199b; BK XXVI, 216c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 327c-d; 364d-365b / Political Economy, 376b-377a; 377d-378a / Social Contract, BK IV, 439b,d [fn 2] 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 175c-d 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73c; 82b-83c; 88d-89a; 92c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 420b-421c 43 MILL: Liberty, 317c-319d 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 280c-281a; 304a-b; 355b-d 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 166 59d-60a; par 174 61b; par 180 62c-63c; par 238-239 76c-d; par 255-256 79d-80a; ADDITIONS, 127 137b; 146-147 140b-c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 172b-d; PART I, 246d-247a; PART II, 277c; PART III, 288c-289b 50 MARX: Capital, 241a-d 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 427b-428a 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 783d-784a
5c. The classes or sub-groups arising from the division of labor or distinctions of birth: the social hierarchy
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 59b-c; 84d-85b 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II-IV, 316a-350a esp BK II, 316c-319c; BK V, 358d-360d; BK VIII, 413a-c / Timaeus, 442b; 445c / Critias, 480a-481b / Laws, BK V, 695a-c; BK VII, 722d; BK VIII, 740d-741a; BK XI, 774a-775a 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 2 [1261a24-b6] 456a-b; CH 5 [1264a11]-CH 6 [1265a9] 459a-460b; CH 8 [1267b30-36] 463c-d; [1268a16-b4] 464a-b; BK III, CH 4-5 473c-475d; BK IV, CH 3 [1289b27-1290a12] 488d-489a; CH 4 [1290b21-1291b29] 489d-491a; CH 12 [1296a20-34] 496d-497a; BK VII, CH 8-10 532c-534d / Athenian Constitution, CH 7 555c-556a 14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 9a-d / Romulus, 20c-21a / Numa Pompilius, 57d-58c 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, XVI 130a-132a 22 CHAUCER: Prologue 159a-174a / Parson’s Tale, par 64-67, 530b-532a 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 131b-132a; 411a-d 26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT IV 56a-64d esp SC II 57d-59d 27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT I, SC III [75-136] 108d-109c 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 221d-222d 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART I, 30a-31a; PART IV, 154b-155b; 158a-b 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 134a-b; 297d-298a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK II, 5b-c; BK III, 11c-12a; BK XV, 111a-112a; BK XX, 151b-152a; BK XXII, 184a-b 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365d-366a / Political Economy, 381c-382b / Social Contract, BK III, 422a; BK IV, 428b-430a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 6d-8b; 51a-62a passim; 109d-110d; BK III, 169c-170b; BK IV, 269d-271a; BK V, 301a-309a,c passim; 309a-311c; 382a-383b; 391b-392a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 89d; 144a-b; 242a-c; 497a-501d passim 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 73b; 81c-d; 317b-318b; 389b-c; 404c-d; 452d-456a,c esp 452d; 571a-572c 42 KANT: Science of Right, 436d-437c; 444c-445c / Judgement, 586a-c 43 ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION: VI [82-93] 6a-b 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 9 [289-295], SECT 10 [300-303] 14a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 35, 113a-114a; NUMBER 36, 114c-115a; NUMBER 84, 252a 43 MILL: Liberty, 270a-b / Representative Government, 385a-d; 392b-399d passim, esp 398a-d 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 124d-126a; 127b-c; 140b-141a; 211b-c; 247c-d; 299a-b; 383b; 470b-c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 201-206 68a-69b; par 255 79d; par 288 97a-b; par 295 98d-99a; par 303 101c-102a; par 305 102b; par 308 102c-103a; par 326 107d-108a; ADDITIONS, 127-130 137b-d; 151 141b-c; 189 149d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 181d-182a; 193b-c; PART I, 222a-223c; 237b-c; 250a-c; PART II, 275b-276a; PART III, 287d-288b, 294c-297b; PART IV, 335a-336c; 356c-357a 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324a-c; 578b-c 50 MARX: Capital, 95d-96b [fn 2]; 164a-180d esp 165a-b, 165d-166a, 171a-c, 173b, 176b-d, 178c-179c; 218c-219d; 239d-240c; 303d; 317c-321b esp 317c-319b, 319d-321b; 355a-364a passim, esp 364a; 366a-b; 368c-369a 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 419b [fn 1]; 419d-420b; 422c-424c; 430b-c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 1a-11b; BK V, 204a-206c; BK VII, 278c; 281a-284a; BK IX, 347d-350d passim; 384c-388a,c; BK X, 403a-405a; BK XI, 503a-505a; EPILOGUE I, 685d-686a 54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures, 882c-d
5d. The conflict of classes within the state
5d(1) The opposition of social groups: the treatment of national, racial, and religious minorities
7 PLATO: Laws, BK I, 641c-642b; BK IV, 678d-679a; BK VIII, 742c-d; BK XI, 774d-775a; BK XII, 790a-d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK III, CH 5 [1277b34-1278a7] 475a-b; BK V, CH 3 [1303a25-b4] 504d-505a; BK VII, CH 10 [1330a25-33] 534d 14 PLUTARCH: Theseus, 9c / Romulus, 21a-27c / Numa Pompilius 49a-61d esp 58c 22 CHAUCER: Prioress’s Tale [13,418-620] 392a-395b esp [13,418-424] 392a / Second Nun’s Tale 463b-471b esp [15,826-16,021] 467b-471b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 108d-109a 26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT I, SC III [106-143] 410c-411a 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART III, PROP 46 410c 32 MILTON: Sonnets, XV 66b 35 LOCKE: Toleration 1a-22d 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART I, 21b-23a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK XXIV, 206c 38 ROUSSEAU: Social Contract, BK IV, 428b-c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 12a-b; 13b-14a; 83a-b; 147a-b; 179d-180a; 206b,d-234a,c esp 207b-211a, 229c-232b; 290b-291c; 348d-361a,c esp 348d-349c, 352c-354d, 356b-d; 383a-b; 390c-391d; 607b-608a; 617a-b; 622b-d; 638d-639a; 643c-d 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 138d; 285d-288a; 404d; 480d-481a 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 9 [260-266] 13d; ARTICLE VI [597-599] 16d; AMENDMENTS, I 17a; XV 19b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 42, 137b-c; NUMBER 52, 165c; NUMBER 54 170a-172b; NUMBER 57, 177b 43 MILL: Liberty, 270c-271a; 278a-282a; 307d-312a passim / Representative Government, 366c-d; 424c-428a / Utilitarianism, 475b-476a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 270, 86d-87b [fn 1] / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 172d-173a; PART II, 276d-277a; PART III, 287d-288b 54 FREUD: War and Death, 755d-756a / Civilization and Its Discontents, 788c
5d(2) The clash of economic interests and political factions: the class war
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [229-245] 260b-c 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VI, 202c-203b; BK VII, 243b-c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK III, 423a-c; 434c-438c esp 436d-437d; BK IV, 459a-c; 463a-469b; BK V, 482d-483a; 502d; 504a-b; BK VI, 520a-d; BK VIII 564a-593a,c 7 PLATO: Republic, BK IV, 343c-d; BK VIII, 405c-406b / Laws, BK V, 695a-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 7 461d-463c passim; BK III, CH 10 [1281a11-29] 478d-479a; BK IV, CH 3-4 488d-491d; CH 11-12 495b-497b; BK V, CH 3-8 503d-511c; CH 9 [1309b14-1310a11] 511d-512b; BK VI, CH 7 [1321a5-27] 524c-525a / Athenian Constitution, CH 1-41 553a-572a passim, esp CH 2-6 553a-555c; CH 29-41 566b-572a 14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 68d-71c; 75c-76d / Coriolanus, 176b-177b; 179c-184c / Agis 648b,d-656d / Cleomenes, 657a-663c / Tiberius Gracchus 671b,d-681a,c / Caius Gracchus 681b,d-689a,c / Cicero, 708a-713b 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK VI, 97b / Histories, BK II, 224d-225a 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, VI [58-75] 9a; X [34-93] 14a-c; XXVIII 41b-43a; PURGATORY, VI [58-151] 61b-62c 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH IX, 14c-d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 121b-122b 26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry VI, ACT IV 56a-64d 27 SHAKESPEARE: Coriolanus, ACT I, SC I 351a-354d / Pericles, ACT II, SC I [30-56] 427c-d 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART I, 21b-23a; PART II, 60a; 80a-b; PART IV, 154b-155b 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 375b-d; 381c-382b / Social Contract, BK II, 396b-d; BK IV, 429c-431c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 28a-d; 109d-110d; BK III, 170c-173b; 175b-179a; BK IV, 269d-271a; BK V, 309a-311c esp 309a-c; 420b-421a 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 144a-d 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 570d-572d passim; 574b-582c; 588a-589a; 594b-c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10 49c-53a; NUMBER 51, 164a-165a; NUMBER 60, 185b-186c; NUMBER 85, 256b-c 43 MILL: Liberty, 289c-290a; 309b-c / Representative Government, 345c-346a; 366a-370a; 376a-c; 387c-d; 392b-399d passim 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 236 76a-c; par 304 102a / Philosophy of History, PART I, 250a-c; PART II, 263b-d; 275b-276a; 283c-d; PART III, 294c-297b; PART IV, 335a-336c; 356c-357a 50 MARX: Capital, 6d-7d; 9a-c; 63b-c; 113c; 127c-146c esp 131a, 134c-d, 141b-c, 144a-146c; 275a-c; 295a; 317b-c; 355d-368b passim, esp 356c-361d, 366a-368b; 377c-378d 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto 415a-434d esp 416c-d, 419b,d-420a, 422c, 423b-424d, 425c, 429b-c, 434c-d 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK X, 410c-421c 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 787d / New Introductory Lectures, 882c-d; 884a
5e. The classless society
50 MARX: Capital, 9c 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 416c-d; 429b-c
6. The ideal or best state: the contrast between the ideal state and the best that is historically real or practicable
6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 395d-399a 7 PLATO: Republic 295a-441a,c esp BK V-VI, 368c-383a, BK VII, 401c-d / Timaeus, 442b-443b / Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws 640a-799a,c esp BK V, 692c-693a, 696a-b, BK VII, 722d-723c, BK IX, 754a-b / Seventh Letter, 807b 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK V, CH 7 [1135a2-4] 382d / Politics, BK II, CH 1 [1260b26]-CH 9 [1269a33] 455b,d-465c; BK IV, CH 1 487a-488b; CH 2 [1289a30-35] 488b; CH 7 [1293b1-21] 493a-b; CH 11 495b-496d esp [1295a25-b1] 495b-c; BK VII-VIII 527a-548a,c esp BK VII, CH 4 [1325b34-39] 530a 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK IX, SECT 29 294a-b 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-48d esp 48b-c / Numa Pompilius 49a-61d / Lycurgus-Numa 61b,d-64a,c 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XV, 22b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 164a,c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 462c-465c 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 94d-95a / New Atlantis 199a-214d 32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 393a-b 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323a-b / Social Contract, BK II, 402b-403a; 405a-c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 201b-c 42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right, 450b-451d; 455c-458a,c / Judgement, 586a-587a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37-38 117d-125a passim; NUMBER 41, 132b-c; NUMBER 65, 200b-c; NUMBER 85, 257a-c; 258d-259a 43 MILL: Representative Government, 327b,d-355b esp 341c-d, 344d-345a, 350b-355b; 368c-d; 380c-381a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 185 64b-d; par 273 90c-92a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 173a-175c; PART I, 251b; PART III, 300c-d 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 432d-433d
6a. The political institutions of the ideal state
5 ARISTOPHANES: Ecclesiazusae 615a-628d 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 396c-397d 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II-IV, 316a-350a / Statesman, 598b-604b / Laws 640a-799a,c esp BK III, 669d-672b, BK IV, 679c-682c, BK V, 692c-693a, BK VI, 697a-706c, BK VIII, 733b-734a, BK IX, 754a-b, BK XII 784b-799a,c / Seventh Letter, 806d-807b 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 1 [1260b28-36] 455b; CH 2 [1261a24-b15] 456a-c; CH 5 [1264a7-25] 459d-460a; CH 6 [1265b26-1266a30] 461b-d; CH 8 463c-465b; BK IV, CH 11 495b-496d 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 34d-35d; 45c-46a 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 105, A 1 307d-309d 27 SHAKESPEARE: Tempest, ACT II, SC I [143-184] 532d-533b 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 268c-269b 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 323a-325b / Social Contract, BK III, 410d-411c; BK IV, 427d 42 KANT: Pure Reason, 114b-d / Science of Right, 450b-451d; 455c-456a 43 MILL: Representative Government, 338a; 341d-350a; 369b-389b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 185 64b-d / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 174a-175c; PART I, 251b; PART III, 300c-d; PART IV, 365c-366a 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 428d
6b. The social and economic arrangements of the ideal state
5 ARISTOPHANES: Birds 542a-563d / Ecclesiazusae 615a-628d / Plutus 629a-642d 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 316c-319a; BK III-IV, 339b-344a; BK V, 356b-365d; BK VII, 401c-d / Timaeus, 442d / Critias, 481a-485c / Laws 640a-799a,c esp BK I, 645b-652d, BK II, 655b-663d, BK IV, 677a-678c, BK V, 691b-697a, BK VI, 706d-713c, BK VII, 717b-728b, BK VIII 731d-743a, BK XI 771b-784b 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 1-8 455b,d-465b; BK VII, CH 8-12 532c-536b 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-47a / Numa Pompilius, 58a-c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 93d-94a 27 SHAKESPEARE: Tempest, ACT II, SC I [146-175] 533a-b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 299 99c-100b 50 MARX: Capital, 292d; 377c-378d 50 MARX-ENGELS: Communist Manifesto, 425b-429c esp 428d-429c; 432b-433d passim 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK VI, 158b-159a 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 787d-788b / New Introductory Lectures, 883d-884c
7. Factors affecting the quality of states
7a. Wealth and political welfare
5 ARISTOPHANES: Plutus 629a-642d esp [415-618] 633d-636d 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 350b-352c; BK II, 397b-c; BK VIII, 569d 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 316c-319a esp 318c-319a; BK III-IV, 339b-344a esp 341c-344a; BK V, 364c-365d; BK VIII, 405c-408a / Critias, 485b-c / Laws, BK III, 665b; BK IV, 677a-c; BK V, 687d-688a; 694a-695c; BK VIII, 733b-d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK II, CH 7 [1267a18-36] 462d-463a; BK VII, CH 4 [1325b33-1326a4] 530a; CH 6 [1327a25-31] 531b-c; CH 8 532c-533a 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 36a-37b; 47d / Lycurgus-Numa, 62b-c / Coriolanus, 180b-d / Aristides-Marcus Cato, 291b-292b / Agis, 649b-c 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, 31a-b; BK III, 57b-58d 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I, CH 30-33 147b-149a 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, VII [1-60] 9c-10a; XVI [64-78] 23a-b; PURGATORY, XX [34-96] 83c-84a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART IV, 267c-268b 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART II, 73b-76b; PART IV, 154b-155b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK V, 19a-21d; 23a-25c; BK VII, 44a-48a; BK XIII, 96c; BK XX, 146b-147d; BK XXI, 153c-d; 154b 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 325d; 327c-328a; 365c-366b / Political Economy, 375b-d; 377b-385a,c / Social Contract, BK II, 405c-d; BK III, 411a-b; 415b-417c; 421c-d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 27b-31b; 33c-35c 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 22b-23b; 88d-89d; 456d-457a,c; 498a-501d; 642a-c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 21, 79b-80a 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 210d-211b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 143 139d-140a 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 324a-d 50 MARX: Capital, 292d; 319b-321b
7b. The importance of the arts and sciences in political life
5 ARISTOPHANES: Acharnians [497-508] 460d-461a; [628-658] 462b-d / Wasps [1009-1059] 519d-520c / Birds [904-1057] 554a-555d / Frogs 564a-582a,c esp [1008-1098] 576b-577c, [1411-1533] 581a-582a,c 7 PLATO: Republic, BK II-III, 320c-339a; BK IV, 344b-345a; BK VIII 388a-401d; BK X 427c-441a,c esp 432d-434c / Statesman, 604c-608d / Laws, BK II 653a-663d; BK III, 675c-676b; BK VII, 713c-730d 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK VIII 542a-548a,c 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 43b-44b 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I, CH 31-33 147d-149a; BK II, CH 8-14 153d-157c; BK IV, CH 26-27 202a-203c / Christian Doctrine, BK II, CH 25 649b-d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 164c 30 BACON: New Atlantis 199a-214d esp 210d-214d 35 HUME: Human Understanding, SEC I, DIV 5, 453a-b 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART III, 104b-107a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK IV, 17b-18d; BK XXV, 191a-c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365d-366b 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK I, 5d-6a; BK V, 308c-309a,c; 337d-339c; 347b-d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 23b-24a,c; 88d; 158d-159a; 633b-c 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 298a-300c; 326b-328a,c esp 327d-328a,c; 451d; 527d-528a,c 42 KANT: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 253c / Judgement, 586a-587a 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I, SECT 8 [214-217] 13b 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 43, 139d-140a 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 180d-181a 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 185a-186a; PART I, 217c-218a; PART II, 277d-278a; PART IV, 346c-348a 54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 778a-779d
7c. The state’s concern with religion and morals: the cultivation of the virtues
6 HERODOTUS: History, BK VII, 232d-233d; BK IX, 294a-c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 370a-c; BK II, 396b-d; 399a 7 PLATO: Apology, 206a-207b / Gorgias, 287c-290b / Republic, BK II-IV, 316a-356a / Timaeus, 442b-443b / Critias, 485b-c / Statesman, 605d-608d / Laws, BK III, 669b-670c; BK IV, 682c-683d; BK V, 687d-688a; BK VIII, 731d-732c; 735b-738c; BK X 757d-771b; BK XII, 794a-799a,c / Seventh Letter, 801b-c; 806b-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK V, CH 2 [1130a18-29] 378a-b; BK X, CH 9 [1179b33-1180a13] 434a-d / Politics, BK II, CH 5 [1263b36-1264a1] 459a; [1264b26-32] 459c; CH 7 [1266b27-1267a17] 462b-d; [1267b36-a9] 463b; BK V, CH 9 [1310a13-36] 512b-c; BK VII, CH 1-3 527a-530a; CH 8 532c-533a; BK VII, CH 13-BK VIII, CH 7 536b-548a,c 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus 32a-48d esp 44d-45c / Numa Pompilius 49a-61d esp 52d-53a / Lycurgus-Numa 61b,d-64a,c / Solon 64b,d-77a,c / Marcellus, 247c-248b 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, 60d-61a 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I-V 129a-230a,c; BK XIX, CH 23-24 525c-528c 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 92, AA 1-2 213c-215a,c; Q 95, A 1 226c-227c; Q 96, AA 2-3 231c-233a 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, VI [58-151] 61b-62c; XVI [52-129] 77b-78a; PARADISE, XV [97]-XVI [154] 129b-132a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 154b-155c 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 74b-c 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 15d / Human Understanding, BK I, CH III, SECT 6 105b-c 35 HUME: Human Understanding, SEC XI, DIV 113-114, 502d-503b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, XXI-XXIIIa-d; BK III, 9b-11d; BK IV-V, 13b,d-19d; BK V, 21b-23b; BK VI, 40a-b; BK XIX, 135d-142a; BK XXIII, 196c-197c; BK XXIV 200a-208a,c 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 327a-328a / Political Economy, 372a-377b / Social Contract, BK IV, 435a-439c 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 337d-338c; 346c-347d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 100c-101b; 291d-292d; 601b-d 42 KANT: Judgement, 509d-510a 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS, XVIII-XXI 19c-20a,c 43 MILL: Liberty, 302d-323a,c passim / Representative Government, 332d-341d passim 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 178b-c; 182c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 175c-177b; PART I, 228d-229b; PART III, 279d-281b; PART IV, 346a-c; 350b-c 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 325b-327b 52 DOSTOEVSKY: Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 28d-32a; BK V, 127b-137c passim; BK VI, 164a-170d passim
7d. The educational task of the state: the trained intelligence of the citizens
5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [399-462] 261d-262b; [857-917] 266a-b 5 ARISTOPHANES: Frogs [1008-1098] 576b-577c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 370a-c; BK II, 397b-c 7 PLATO: Protagoras, 43a-47c / Crito 213a-219a,c / Republic, BK II-IV, 316a-356a; BK V, 366a-c; BK VI, 380d-381a; BK VI-VII, 383b-401d / Statesman, 607b-608d / Laws, BK I-II 640a-663d esp BK I, 644b-645c; BK III, 675c-676b; BK VII 713c-731d; BK VIII, 732b-735a 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK I, CH 2 [1094a28-b11] 339c-d; CH 9 [1099b29-32] 345b; BK V, CH 2 [1130a18-29] 378a-b; BK X, CH 9 434a-436a,c esp [1179b33-1180a13] 434a-d / Politics, BK II, CH 5 [1263b36-1264a1] 459a; [1264b26-32] 459c; CH 6 [1264b37-39] 460b; CH 7 [1266b27-35] 462b-c; BK III, CH 4 [1277a14-29] 474a-475a; BK IV, CH 9 [1294a19-24] 494c; BK V, CH 9 [1310a12-35] 512b-c; BK VII, CH 13-BK VIII, CH 7 536b-548a,c / Athenian Constitution, CH 42 572b-d 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 33c-34a; 39a-45b / Lycurgus-Numa 61b,d-64a,c / Solon 64b,d-77a,c passim / Agesilaus, 480b,d-481a 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, VIII [115-148] 118b-c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 114b-115a; 150c-151a; 153a-155c; PART IV, 273a-c 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 66a; BK II, 81d-83b 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 60c-62a 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 23a; 79c-80a 32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 384b-385b; 398a-b 35 HUME: Human Understanding, SEC I, DIV 5, 453a-b 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART II, 76b-80b 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK IV 13b,d-18d 38 ROUSSEAU: Inequality, 365d-366b / Political Economy, 372a-377b / Social Contract, BK II, 402b-403a 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK V, 303b-305c; 337d-338c; 340c-343d; 347c-d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 6b: 669a-670b 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 347a,c 42 KANT: Judgement, 586a-587a 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 27, 95c-d; NUMBER 84, 253d-254b 43 MILL: Liberty, 283a-c; 317d-323a,c / Representative Government, 330a-b; 332d-341d passim, esp 339a-340c; 349a-350a; 381b-387d passim; 418b-d; 420b-d; 424b-c 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 187 65a-c; par 239 76d; par 315 104c; ADDITIONS, 98 133a; 147 140c; 166 145b-c; 183 148d-149a / Philosophy of History, PART II, 271d-272d 49 DARWIN: Descent of Man, 328c-d 50 MARX: Capital, 237d-240d 54 FREUD: Sexual Enlightenment of Children, 122c
8. The offices of state: the statesman, king, or prince
8a. The duties of public office and the responsibilities of office holders: the relation of the statesman or king to the people he represents or rules
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 41:44 / Deuteronomy, 17:14-20 / I Samuel, 8:11-18—(D) I Kings, 8:11-18 / I Kings, 3:7-9—(D) III Kings, 3:7-9 / II Chronicles, 1:7-12—(D) II Paralipomenon, 1:7-12 / Psalms, 72—(D) Psalms, 71 / Proverbs, 16:12-15; 25:2-3; 28:15; 29:2,4,12,14 / Isaiah, 22:20-22—(D) Isaias, 22:20-22 / Jeremiah, 23:3-6—(D) Jeremias, 23:3-6 APOCRYPHA: I Maccabees, 14—(D) OT, I Machabees, 14 5 AESCHYLUS: Suppliant Maidens [354-523] 5b-7c / Seven Against Thebes [1-77] 27a-28a 5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [572-630] 104c-105a / Antigone [162-210] 132c-d; [633-765] 136c-137d 5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [286-358] 260d-261c 5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights 470a-487a,c 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK II, 397b-c; 402a-404d; BK III, 427a-c; BK VI, 513a 7 PLATO: Republic, BK I, 301b-306b; BK III, 339b-341d; BK VII, 390b-391b; 401a-b / Statesman, 604c-608d / Laws, BK VI, 697a-705c passim; BK XII, 794a-799a,c / Seventh Letter, 806d-807b; 814b-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 11 [1259a23-36] 453c-d; BK III, CH 4 [1277a14-b33] 474a-475a; CH 6 [1278b30-1279a21] 476a-c; CH 17 486c-487a; BK IV, CH 4 [1291a34-b7] 490c-d; BK VI, CH 4 [1318b39-1319a4] 522c; CH 8 525b-526d; BK VII, CH 2 528a-529a; CH 4 [1326a13-15] 530d; CH 9 [1329a3-39] 533b-d; CH 14 [1332b13-1333a17] 537b-538a 14 PLUTARCH: Numa Pompilius, 51c-52c / Marcus Cato 276b,d-290d / Crassus-Nicias, 455d-456d / Agesilaus, 486d-487b / Cato the Younger 620a-648a,c esp 626d-627b, 632b-c / Agis, 648b,d-649b / Tiberius Gracchus, 678b-d / Demosthenes, 699c-700a 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, 57b-58d; 61c-62a; BK XII, 112a-c 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 6 514b-515a; CH 15-16 521a-522a 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 90, A 3, ANS 207a-c 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVI [52-129] 77b-78a 23 MACHIAVELLI: Prince, CH XIV-XIX 21b-30a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 153a-159c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 7a-d; 24a-25c; 315c-d; 327d-329d; 381a-388c passim; 436c-438b 26 SHAKESPEARE: 2nd Henry IV, ACT IV, SC V 494b-496d / Henry V, ACT I, SC I 533a-d; ACT IV, SC I [87-215] 552c-553d 27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT III, SC IV [26-36] 264c / Coriolanus, ACT II, SC II 366a-369a 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 340b-348c; 352b-356d; 360d-364a 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 74d-75a / New Atlantis, 208a-c 32 MILTON: Sir Henry Vane 69b / Paradise Lost, BK II [430-456] 120b-121a 35 LOCKE: Toleration, 3a / Civil Government, CH VII, SECT 90-94 44d-46c; CH VIII, SECT 105-112 48c-51b; CH XIV 62b-64c; CH XIX, SECT 221-222 75d-76c 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART IV, 157b-158a 38 MONTESQUIEU: Spirit of Laws, BK VI, 40a-b; 43c-d; BK XII, 93d-94a; 94c-95b 38 ROUSSEAU: Political Economy, 367a-368c; 372c-373c / Social Contract, BK I, 388a; BK III, 412c-414d; BK IV, 427b; 427d 39 SMITH: Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 194b-c; 199c-d; 284d 40 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 26d-27a; 50a; 243a-245b; 288b-289a; 338d-339c; 342a-c, 343b-c; 437b-438a; 577a-578c; 639d-644a passim 41 GIBBON: Decline and Fall, 95a-c; 102d-103a: 320d-321b; 505a; 563d-564b; 586c-587b 42 KANT: Science of Right, 434a; 444c-445a 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [25-98] 1b-3a 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: ARTICLE I-III 11a-16a passim; ARTICLE IV, SECT 3 16b; ARTICLE V 16c; AMENDMENTS, XVII 19b-c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 19, 74a-c; NUMBER 20, 76b-d; NUMBER 22, 83b-d; NUMBER 35, 113a-114c; NUMBER 53, 168b-169d passim; NUMBER 56-57 174d-179b; NUMBER 64, 196d; NUMBER 70, 212c-214a; NUMBER 71, 214d-215a 43 MILL: Liberty, 298d-299a; 302b-c / Representative Government, 341d-344d; 353b; 398d-399d; 401a-406a passim; 410d-411b 44 BOSWELL: Johnson, 86a-b 46 HEGEL: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 295 98d-99a; par 297 99b; par 303 101c-102a; par 305-311 102b-104a; ADDITIONS, 175 147b-c; 181 148b-c / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 173a-c; PART IV, 361d-362a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 9c-10d; BK X, 465c-467a; BK XI, 507a; BK XIV, 611a-c
8b. The qualities or virtues necessary for the good statesman or king
OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 41:33,39-40 / Exodus, 18:21-26 / Leviticus, 19:15 / Deuteronomy, 1:13; 16:18; 17:14-20 / I Samuel, 15:10-35—(D) I Kings, 15:10-35 / II Samuel, 23:3—(D) II Kings, 23:3 / I Kings, 3:5-28; 4:29-34—(D) III Kings, 3:5-28; 4:29-34 / II Chronicles, 1:7-12—(D) II Paralipomenon, 1:7-12 / Psalms, 72—(D) Psalms, 71 / Proverbs, 8:15-16; 16:10,12-13; 17:7; 20:26-28; 24:5-6; 25:2-5; 28:15-16; 29:2,4,12,14; 31:4-5 / Ecclesiastes, 10:16-17 / Isaiah, 16:5; 32:1—(D) Isaias, 16:5; 32:1 / Jeremiah, 23:3-6—(D) Jeremias, 23:3-6 / Ezekiel, 45:9—(D) Ezechiel, 45:9 APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 1:1; 6; 9—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 1:1; 6; 9 / Ecclesiasticus, 10:1-3; 41:17-18—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 10:1-3; 41:21-22 / I Maccabees, 14—(D) OT, I Machabees, 14 5 AESCHYLUS: Persians [623-680] 21c-22a; [852-908] 24b-d 5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [162-210] 132c-d; [633-765] 136c-137d 5 ARISTOPHANES: Knights 470a-487a,c esp [147-222] 471d-472c / Peace [601-692] 532d-534a / Ecclesiazusae [173-247] 617a-d; [441-459] 619d-620a 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK V, 164d-165a 6 THUCYDIDES: Peloponnesian War, BK I, 383d-384a; BK II, 404a-d; BK III, 425a-c; BK VI, 513a-514b 7 PLATO: Gorgias, 285a-292a / Republic, BK I, 319c-320c; BK III, 339b-340b; BK V-VI, 368c-383c / Timaeus, 442b-d / Statesman, 604c-608d / Laws, BK IV, 679c-682c; BK XII, 796b-d / Seventh Letter, 801b-802c; 804b-805a; 806b-c; 807a-b 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK VI, CH 5 [1140b4-11] 389b; CH 8 [1141b23-1142a11] 390d-391a / Politics, BK I, CH 1 [1252a7-17] 445a-b; CH 13 454a-455a,c esp [1259b33-1260a20] 454b-d; BK II, CH 5 [1264a7-25] 459d-460a; CH 9 [1270b7-1271a18] 466d-467b; CH 11 [1273a21-b16] 469d-470b; BK III, CH 4 473c-475a; CH 12-13 480c-483a; CH 17 486c-487a; BK IV, CH 4 [1291a34-b7] 490c-d; BK V, CH 9 [1309a33-b12] 511c-d; BK VII, CH 2 528a-529a; CH 9 [1329a3-17] 533b-c; CH 14 [1332b13-1333a17] 537b-538a 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK I 253a-256d; BK III, SECT 5 261a; BK VI, SECT 30 276d-277a 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 45c-46a / Numa Pompilius 49a-61d esp 60a-b / Pericles 121a-141a,c / Coriolanus, 180d-181b / Alcibiades-Coriolanus 193a-195a,c / Aristides 262b,d-276a,c esp 263d-267a, 273d-275c / Marcus Cato 276b,d-290d esp 279c, 282a / Aristides-Marcus Cato 290b,d-292d / Lysander-Sulla, 387d-388a / Lucullus, 419a-b / Nicias, 423d-430d / Crassus-Nicias 455b,d-457d / Phocion 604b,d-619d / *C