Chapter 60: NATURE

INTRODUCTION

NATURE is a term which draws its meaning from the other terms with which it is associated by implication or contrast. Yet it is not one of a fixed pair of terms, like necessity and contingency, one and many, universal and particular, war and peace. When things are divided into the natural and the artificial, or into the natural and the conventional, the opposite of the natural does not represent a loss or violation of nature, but rather a transformation of nature through the addition of a new factor. The unnatural, on the other hand, seems to be merely a deviation, a falling away from, or sometimes a transgression of nature.

Most of the terms which stand in opposition to nature represent the activity or being of man or God. As appears in the chapter on MEDICINE, Galen thinks of nature as an artist. Harvey later develops this notion. But with these two exceptions, the traditional theory of art conceives it not as the work of nature, but of man. Despite other differences in the great books on the theory of art, especially with regard to art’s imitation of nature, there seems to be a common understanding that works of art are distinguished from productions of nature by the fact that man has added something to nature. A world which man left exactly as he found it would be a world without art or any trace of the artificial in it.

The ancient authors who contrast the natural and the conventional and the modern authors who distinguish man’s life in a state of nature from his life in civil society seem to imply that without something done by man there would be nothing conventional or political. Locke appears to be an exception here. He thinks that there is a natural as well as a civil, or political, society. Natural society is the society of “men living together according to reason without a common superior on earth, with authority to judge between them.” Unlike Hobbes or Kant or Hegel, Locke does not think that the state of nature is necessarily a state of war. But this difference between Locke and others does not affect the point that the political institutions of civil society are things of man’s own devising.

There may be, among the social insects, natural organizations such as the bee-hive and the ant-mound. It may even be, as Locke supposes, that in a state of nature, “‘men living together according to reason” would constitute a society. But in neither case does the society we call “a state” result. States differ from one another in many features of their political organization. In this sense the state or political community is conventional rather than natural; its institutions are humanly contrived.

The social contract theory of the origin of the state is not necessarily involved in the recognition that the state is partly conventional. Aristotle, for example, who regards the state as natural—he speaks of it as “a creation of nature”—does not think of the political community as natural in the sense in which a bee-hive is natural. That men should form political communities is, in his view, the result of a natural desire, a tendency inherent in the nature of man as a political animal. But what form the political community will take is at least partly determined by the particular arrangements men voluntarily institute. Man-made laws are conventional, but so also are other institutions which vary from state to state or change from time to time.

THE ISSUES IN political theory raised by any consideration of what is and is not natural about society or the state are discussed in other chapters, e.g., FAMILY and STATE. What is true in this connection is likely to be true of each of the other fundamental oppositions in which the notion of nature is involved. The issues raised by the relation of art to nature are, for example, considered in the chapter on ART; those raised by the distinction between nature and nurture are considered in the chapter on HABIT, and so on. Here we are concerned not with the theoretical consequences of different conceptions of nature, but with the various meanings of the term itself as it is used in different contexts.

Common to all meanings is the notion that the natural is that which man’s doing or making has not altered or enlarged. The distinction between nature and nurture confirms this. Man’s activities are the source of modifications in his own nature as well as in the nature of other things. The human nature man is born with undergoes transformations in the course of life: the acquirement of knowledge, the formation of habits (which are often called “second nature”), the modification of instincts. The sum of these changes represents what nurture adds to nature.

When changes of this sort are looked at collectively they give rise to the notions of culture or civilization—two more terms which present a contrast to nature. In Rousseau and others we meet the feeling that man may have lost, not gained, by exchanging the natural for the civilized life. The ideal of a return to nature involves more than a return to the soil, or an exodus from the city to the country. In its most radical form, this ideal calls upon man to divest himself of all the artifices and conceits with which he has thought to improve on nature—“by renouncing its advances,” Rousseau says, “in order to renounce its vices.”

But why, it may be asked, is the whole world which man creates not as natural as the materials which man finds to work with—the resources of physical nature and the native equipment which is man’s nature at birth? If man himself is a natural entity, and if all human activities are somehow determined by human nature, then why are not the works of art and science, the development of political institutions, the cultivation of human beings by education and experience, and all other features of civilization—why are not all these just as natural as the falling stone, the flourishing forest, or the bee-hive? Why, in short, should there be any contrast between the works of nature and the works of man?

THIS QUESTION points to one of the fundamental issues in the traditional discussion of nature. Those who uphold the validity of the contrast defend its significance in terms of something quite special about human nature. If man were entirely a creature of instinct—if everything man did were determined by his nature so that no choices were open to him and no deviation from the course of nature possible—then the human world would seem to fade into the rest of nature. Only on the supposition that man is by nature rational and free do those human works which are the products of reason or the consequences of free choice seem to stand in sharp contrast to all other natural existences or effects of natural causes.

Of these two factors—rationality and freedom—the element of freedom is usually the one most emphasized. The line is drawn between that which natural causes determine and that which man determines by his own free choice. The laws of nature are often conceived as expressing an inherent rationality in nature itself, but they also state the uniformity of nature’s operations. Such maxims of nature as ‘nature does nothing in vain,’ ‘nature abhors a vacuum,’ or ‘nature does nothing by jumps’ are usually interpreted as describing nature’s invariable way of doing things. Aristotle’s distinction between things which happen naturally and those which happen by chance turns on the regularity of the events which result from causes in the very nature of things. The natural is that which happens either always or for the most part.

Hence, even if there is rationality of some sort in the structure of nature, that supposition does not seem to affect the position of those who connect human reason with human freedom and who, in consequence, divide the things which happen as a result of man’s free choice from everything else which happens in the course of nature. This may be exemplified by the Greek understanding of the difference between nature and convention. The laws of Persia vary from the laws of Greece, the political institutions of the city-states vary from those of the Homeric age, customs and constitutions differ from city to city. Unlike such conventions, “that which is by nature,” Aristotle writes, “is unchangeable and has everywhere the same force, as fire burns both here and in Persia.” The conventional is the variable, the natural the uniform. The variability of conventions, moreover, seems to suggest that they are products of freedom or choice.

The difference between the bee-hive and the human city is that one is entirely a creation of nature, a social organization entirely determined by the instincts of the bees, so that wherever bees form a hive, it is formed in the same way; whereas the human city involves something more than a natural desire of men, since when these political animals associate in different places, they set up different forms of government and different kinds of law. The same comparison can be made between the spider’s web or the beaver’s dam and such products of human art as cloth and houses. The variability of the works of reason, as opposed to the uniformity of instinctive productions of all sorts, implies the factor of choice in reason’s work.

THE CONCEPTION OF nature which tries to separate the natural from what man contributes thus seems to depend upon the conception of man. Controversies concerning man’s difference from other animals, especially the dispute about human freedom (considered in such chapters as MAN and WILL), bear directly on the issue of the naturalness of the things which result from man’s doing and making.

Spinoza, for example, in holding that human actions constitute no exception to the reign of necessity throughout nature, removes any ground for distinguishing the effects of human operation from other effects. Man exercises no freedom of choice; nor does man in any other way introduce a new principle into the order or process of nature. Hobbes and Locke concur in the denial of free will, but they separate the inventions of man’s mind or his social institutions from what happens without human contrivance in the realm of thought or action. The difference between simple and complex ideas for Locke seems to parallel the ancient distinction between nature and art.

At the other extreme from Spinoza, Kant separates the order of nature and the order of freedom into worlds as radically asunder as the Cartesian realms of matter and mind. The world of nature is the system or order of the objects of sense—“the sum total of phenomena insofar as they… are connected with each other throughout.” For Kant this means two things which are strictly correlative. Nature is the object of the theoretic sciences and it is also the realm of time, space, and causality. Like Spinoza, Kant identifies the order of nature with the order of causal necessity. But, unlike Spinoza, Kant places the moral and political life of man in an order unconditioned by time, space, and causality. This realm of freedom is the sphere of the moral or practical sciences. The natural or theoretic sciences do not extend to what Kant calls the “supersensible” or the “noumenal” order—the world of things lying outside the range of sense-experience.

There is an alternative to Spinoza’s location of all events within the order of nature and to Kant’s separation of the realm of nature from the domain of freedom. It takes the form of Aristotle’s or Aquinas’ distinction between the natural and the voluntary. The voluntary is in one sense natural, in another not. It is natural in the sense that what happens voluntarily in the realm of animal and human motions proceeds from causes as natural as those responsible for the motions of inert bodies. A voluntary act, according to Aquinas, comes from “an intrinsic principle,” just as the falling of a stone proceeds from “a principle of movement in the stone.” But among the factors responsible for voluntary acts is “knowledge of the end”—knowledge of the object being sought. The sphere of the voluntary can therefore be equated with the sphere of conscious desire, i.e., with desire aroused by an object known, whether known by sense or reason. The natural in the sense in which it is distinguished from the voluntary is the sphere of motions in line with natural desire, i.e., with tendencies founded in the very nature of a body or organism and unaccompanied by any awareness of the goal toward which it is thus inclined to move.

Aristotle’s distinction between natural and violent motion (which Galileo and other physicists adopt) seems to throw light on a double use of the term ‘natural’ here. Galileo treats the motion of a freely falling body as natural, in contrast to the motion of a projectile. In the former case, it is the nature of heavy bodies to gravitate toward the earth; whereas in the latter case, in addition to the motion of gravitation, another motion is imparted to the body when it is shot from a gun—a motion which does not proceed from the body’s own nature but is caused by the motions of other bodies. In terms of this distinction, voluntary motions are natural rather than violent. In fact, the violent is sometimes thought to be even more opposed to the voluntary than to the natural, in the sense that a man acting contrary to his will under external coercion suffers violence. When he does what he wishes, his conduct is not only voluntary but natural, i.e., free from the violence of external forces.

It is necessary to consider the additional distinction between the voluntary and the free. Animals acting from desires caused by the perception of certain objects act voluntarily, but, in the theory of Aristotle and Aquinas, only men freely choose among alternative objects of desire or between means for accomplishing an end. The effects of voluntary action differ from other natural events only because knowledge enters into their determination. But that which happens as the result of man’s free choice is determined neither by his nature nor by his knowledge. Hence whatever comes into existence through man’s choice stands apart from all that is naturally determined to exist.

One other matter bears on this consideration of the natural in relation to the voluntary and the free. Spinoza excludes the operation of final causes, as well as free choice, from the order of nature. Purposes or ends are not principles of nature. Aristotle, on the other hand, thinks that final causes are operative in every part of nature. He finds them in the sphere of inert bodies which naturally tend toward certain results. He finds them in the sphere of animal and human motions, where the final cause or end may be an object of conscious desire.

So far as the search for causes is concerned, nature presents the same kind of problems to the physicist as to the biologist or psychologist. In only one sense are final causes peculiarly present in human conduct; that is the sense in which the change effected is not the ultimate end, but only a means to some further end desired. Here there is an extrinsic final cause as well as a final cause intrinsic to the change itself. It may be with regard to this special sense that Bacon says of final causes that they are “more allied to man’s own nature than to the system of the universe.” Yet Bacon, far from denying their presence in the scheme of things, assigns the investigation of final causes to metaphysics (as a branch of natural philosophy) rather than to physics. For him the ascertainment of final causes does not discover a purpose in the nature of things. Rather it looks to God’s plan and providence.

WE HAVE SO FAR dealt with that consideration of nature which opposes the natural to the works of man. The discussion of nature also moves on a theological plane. Here, on one traditional view, the natural is not opposed to, but rather identified with the work of God. “Things which are said to be made by nature,” Plato writes, “are the work of divine art.” Those who conceive the universe as God’s creation, and think of God alone as uncreated being, tend to use the word “nature” collectively for the whole world of creatures and distributively for each type of thing which has its being from God.

The distinction between the supernatural and the natural has many interpretations in Christian theology, but none more basic than that which divides all being into the uncreated and the created. On this view, the order of nature includes more than the world of physical, sensible things. It includes the spiritual creation—angels and souls—as well. Immaterial beings are no more supernatural than bodies. They, too, are created natures. Only God is uncreated being.

Those who do not have or who deny a doctrine of creation use the word “nature” in a less and in a more comprehensive sense. The Greek philosophers, for example, seem to restrict the natural to the physical, i.e., to the realm of material, sensible, changing things. Change is an element in the connotation of the Greek word physis, of which natura is the Latin equivalent. As Greek scientists conceive the study of nature, it is the business of physics to investigate the principles, causes, and elements of change.

Things which are thought to be untouched by change, such as the objects of mathematics, self-subsistent ideas, or separate forms; or things which are thought to be eternal and immutable, such as immaterial substances or intelligences, do not belong to the realm of physics or natural science. In Aristotle’s classification of the sciences such beings are the objects of mathematics and metaphysics, or theology. Since, for him, whatever is both sensible and mutable is also material, the realm of nature includes no more than the whole material universe, celestial as well as terrestrial.

The more comprehensive sense of nature appears in Spinoza’s identification of nature with the infinite and eternal substance of God. “Besides God,” says Spinoza, “no substance can be nor be conceived…. Whatever is, is in God, and nothing can either be or be conceived without God.” All finite things are modes of the divine substance or, more precisely, of the attributes of God, such as extension and thought. Nature, therefore, is the totality of finite things, both material and immaterial. But nature exceeds even this totality, for the infinite substance of God is greater than the sum of its parts.

To make this clear, Spinoza employs the distinction between natura naturans and natura naturata. “By natura naturans we are to understand that which is in itself and is conceived through itself, or those attributes of substance which express eternal and infinite essence; that is to say, God in so far as He is considered as a free cause. But by natura naturata I understand everything which follows from the necessity of the nature of God, or of any one of God’s attributes in so far as they are considered as things which are in God, and which without God can neither be nor be conceived.”

Viewed under the aspect of time rather than eternity, the order of nature (i.e., natura naturata) is as much an order of ideas as it is an order of things. “The order and connection of ideas is the same as the order and connection of things,” Spinoza writes. “Whether we think of nature under the attribute of extension or under the attribute of thought, or under any other attribute whatever, we shall discover one and the same order, or one and the same connection of causes.”

Except perhaps for the Stoics, like Marcus Aurelius and Epictetus, Spinoza seems to stand alone in this conception of nature as all-embracing. The Stoics too regard nature as the system of the universe, with man a part of its cosmic structure, and with God or divinity inherent in nature as the rational principle governing all things. But with or without reference to God and creation, thinkers like Descartes and Hume tend to identify nature not with the totality of finite things, but with the world of bodies in motion or changing sensible things.

For Descartes, nature does not include the realm of thought or thinking substances, though these, like bodies, are finite and dependent creatures of God. For Hume, nature seems to be that which lies outside experience—in a way, the reality which underlies appearances. Where Spinoza thinks that the system of ideas is as much a part of nature as the system of bodies in motion, Hume speaks of “a kind of pre-established harmony between the course of nature and the succession of our ideas.”

Hume’s distinction between knowledge of the relation between our own ideas and knowledge of matters of fact or real existence seems furthermore to imply that nature is the reality known (however inadequately) when we assert certain things to be matters of fact. Here we perceive another meaning of nature, defined by another basic opposition, this time between the real and the ideal or the imaginary. It is in this sense that mediaeval writers oppose entia naturae, i.e., natural or real beings, to entia rationis, or things which have their being in the mind.

THIS DISTINCTION, like most of the others in which nature is concerned, does not have universal acceptance. Kant, as we have seen, far from making nature the reality which exists independently of our experience or knowledge, conceives the realm of nature as identical with all possible experience. “We possess two expressions,” Kant writes, “world and nature, which are generally interchanged. The first denotes the mathematical total of all phenomena and the totality of their synthesis…. And the world is termed nature, when it is regarded as a dynamical whole—when our attention is not directed to the aggregation in space and time… but to the unity in the existence of phenomena.”

On quite different principles of analysis, Berkeley also treats as natural things the ideas or sensations which “are not produced by, or dependent on, the wills of men.” Natural beings do not exist apart from the mind, but unlike imaginary ones, natural beings are those ideas which are not subject to our will or the human mind’s own constructive activities. Such ideas are produced in our minds immediately by God.

To the question whether “Nature hath no share in the production of natural things,” Berkeley answers: “If by Nature is meant the visible series of effects or sensations imprinted on our minds, according to certain fixed and general laws, then it is plain that Nature, taken in this sense, cannot produce anything at all. But, if by Nature is meant some being distinct from God, as well as from the laws of nature, and things perceived by sense, I must confess that word is to me an empty sound without any intelligible meaning annexed to it. Nature, in this acceptation, is a vain chimera, introduced by those heathens who had not just notions of the omnipresence and infinite perfection of God.”

Berkeley’s view represents one extreme position on a theological issue of the utmost difficulty. According to him God is not only the creator or first cause, but the sole cause of everything which happens in the course of nature. There are no natural causes. Nature has no productive power. Everything is the work of God or the work of man—nothing the work of nature.

Within the limits of this issue, the other extreme consists in denying not the creativity of God, but the role of divine causality in the production of natural effects. It relegates them entirely to the efficacy of natural causes. Lucretius, of course, denies both the creation of the world and the intervention of the gods in the processes of nature. But others, like Descartes, seem to say that once God has created the physical world, once He has formed matter into bodies and given them their initial impetus, their motions henceforward need only the laws of nature which God laid down for them to follow. For everything that happens in the course of nature, natural causes, operating under these laws, suffice.

There is a third position which distinguishes between the work of God in the creation of nature, and the work of nature in the production of effects of all sorts, such as the natural motions of bodies or the propagation of animals. But though it ascribes efficacy to natural agents or second causes in the production of natural effects, it also regards natural causes as instrumental to the hand of God, the first or principal cause of everything which happens as well as of everything which is. Aquinas seems to hold that God acts alone only in the original creation of things; whereas in the preservation of created natures and in their causal interaction, God works through secondary, or natural, causes.

“Some have understood God to work in every agent,” Aquinas writes, “in such a way that no created power has any effect in things, but that God alone is the immediate cause of everything wrought; for instance, that it is not fire that gives heat, but God in the fire, and so forth. But this is impossible. First, because the order of cause and effect would be taken away from created things, and this would imply a lack of power in the Creator…. Secondly, because the operative powers which are seen to exist in things would be bestowed on things to no purpose, if things produced nothing through them…. We must therefore understand that God works in things in such a manner that things have also their proper operation.”

In other words, according to Aquinas, “God is the cause of action in every agent.” Furthermore, “God not only moves things to operate… but He also gives created agents their forms and preserves them in being.” With regard to the being of things, Aquinas holds that God “established an order among things, so that some depend on others, by which they are conserved in being, though He remains the principal cause of their conservation.”

WITH REGARD TO NATURE itself this theological doctrine raises two sorts of problems. The first concerns the efficacy of natural causes, which are sufficient for the scientist to appeal to in explaining natural phenomena, yet are insufficient by themselves for the production of natural effects. The second concerns the distinction between the natural and the supernatural, now not in terms of the created and the uncreated, but in terms of what happens naturally (or even by chance) as opposed to what happens as a result of God’s intervention in the course of nature.

Miracles, for example, are supernatural rather than natural events. They are not produced by natural causes; nor do they happen by accident. They are attributed by the theologian to divine causality, yet not in such a way that violence is done to nature. “The term miracle,” Aquinas explains, “is derived from admiration, which arises when an effect is manifest, whereas its cause is hidden…. A miracle is so called as being full of wonder; in other words, as having a cause absolutely hidden from all. This cause is God. Therefore those things which God does outside the causes which we know are called miracles.”

The miraculous is that which is beyond the power of nature to accomplish. “A thing is said to be above the ability of nature,” Aquinas writes, “not only by reason of the substance of the thing done, but also because of the manner and the order in which it is done”; and “the more the power of nature is surpassed, the greater the miracle.” Aquinas distinguishes three grades of miracles.

The first, he says, surpasses nature “in the substance of the deed; as, for example, if two bodies occupy the same place, or if the sun goes backwards, or if a human body is glorified. Such things nature is absolutely unable to do; and these hold the highest rank among miracles. Secondly, a thing surpasses the power of nature, not in the deed, but in that wherein it is done; as the raising of the dead, and giving sight to the blind, and the like. For nature can give life, but not to the dead, and it can give sight, but not to the blind. Such hold the second rank in miracles. Thirdly, a thing surpasses nature’s power in the measure and order in which it is done; as when a man is cured of a fever suddenly by God, without treatment or the usual process of nature…. These hold the lowest place in miracles.”

Though “each of these kinds has various degrees, according to the different ways in which the power of nature is surpassed,” no miracle, according to Aquinas, transgresses the order of nature in the sense of accomplishing the impossible. Unlike the impossible, which would destroy nature, the improbable can be elicited by God’s power within the general framework of nature.

Hume, on the other hand, thinks that “a miracle is a violation of the laws of nature.” And since, in his view, a firm and unalterable experience has established these laws, the proof against a miracle, from the nature of the fact, is as entire as any argument from experience can be. “Why is it more than probable,” he asks, “that all men must die; that lead cannot, of itself remain suspended in the air; that fire consumes wood, and is extinguished by water; unless it be, that these events are found agreeable to the laws of nature, and there is required a violation of these laws, or in other words, a miracle to prevent them?

“Nothing is esteemed a miracle,” Hume continues, “if it ever happens in the common course of nature…. There must, therefore, be a uniform experience against every miraculous event, otherwise the event would not merit that appellation. And as a uniform experience amounts to proof, there is here a direct and full proof, from the nature of the fact, against the existence of any miracle; nor can such a proof be destroyed, or the miracle rendered credible, but by an opposite proof which is superior.”

Hume does not think that miracles can be proved against our uniform experience of the order of nature. But he also thinks that they are “dangerous friends or disguised enemies to the Christian religion” who would try to defend its beliefs “by the principles of human reason…. The Christian religion not only was at first attended with miracles,” he declares, “but even at this day cannot be believed by any reasonable person without one. Mere reason is insufficient to convince us of its veracity: and whoever is moved by Faith to assent to it, is conscious of a continued miracle in his own person… which gives him a determination to believe what is most contrary to custom and experience.”

ONE OTHER TRADITIONAL conception of nature, implicit in much of the foregoing, should be noted. The various senses of the term so far explicitly considered are alike in this: that they justify the use of the word “Nature” with a capital N and in the singular. This other sense of the term appears when we speak of each thing as having a nature of its own, and of the world as containing a vast plurality and radical diversity of natures.

In this sense we attribute a nature even to things which are contrasted with Nature and the natural. We speak of the nature of God and the nature of freedom, the nature of art, the nature of reason, the nature of ideas, the nature of the state, the nature of customs and habits. This could, of course, imply a theory that things which are not completely natural, nevertheless have a natural basis, as art, the state, or habit. Another meaning, however, seems to be involved.

The phrase “nature of” appears almost as frequently in the great books as the word “is,” and frequently it is unaccompanied by any explicit theory of Nature or the natural. The discussion of the nature of anything seems, for the most part, to be a discussion of what it is. To state the nature of anything is to give its definition; or if for any reason definition in a strict sense cannot be given, then the attempt to state the nature of the thing consists in trying to say what characterizes this thing or kind of thing, in distinction from everything else or all other kinds.

Enumerating the senses of the term ‘nature,’ Aristotle gives this as the fifth meaning. The first four comprise senses which distinguish the natural from the artificial or the immutable, and which indicate that the natural or the physical has an immanent principle of movement in itself and involves matter or potency. The fifth sense is that in which ‘nature’ means “the essence of natural objects”; and, as he goes on to say, this implies the presence in them of form as well as matter. “By an extension of meaning from this sense of ‘nature’ every essence in general has come to be called a ‘nature,’ because the nature of a thing is one kind of essence.” This is the sixth and most general sense, according to which the nature or essence of anything is the object of definition.

Does each individual thing have a nature peculiarly its own, even if it cannot be defined? Or is a nature or essence always something common to a number of individuals, according to which they can be classified into kinds, and the kinds ordered as species and genera? Do John and James, for example, have individual natures in addition to the common nature which they share through belonging to the human species; and does their human nature entail certain properties which are generic rather than specific, i.e., which seem to be determined by their having the generic nature common to all animals as well as the specific nature common to all men?

Such questions about individual, specific, and generic natures raise problems of definition and classification which are discussed in the chapter on EVOLUTION. They also raise problems about the existence or reality of the kinds which men define and classify. Are they merely what Locke calls “nominal essences,” or do our definitions signify real essences, i.e., the natures of things as they really are? Is the real world one which, as William James says, “plays right into logic’s hands”? Does Nature consist of a hierarchy of natures or distinct kinds; or is it a continuum of things all having the same nature and differing from each other only individually or accidentally, but not essentially? These problems are discussed elsewhere, in such chapters as ANIMAL, DEFINITION, EVOLUTION, LIFE AND DEATH, and SAME AND OTHER.

OUTLINE OF TOPICS

1. Conceptions of nature * 1a. Nature as the intrinsic source of a thing’s properties and behavior * (1) The distinction between essential and individual nature: generic or specific properties, and individual, contingent accidents * (2) Nature or essence in relation to matter and form * 1b. Nature as the universe or the totality of things: the identification of God and nature: the distinction between natura naturans and natura naturata * 1c. Nature as the complex of the objects of sense: the realm of things existing under the determination of universal laws

2. The antitheses of nature or the natural * 2a. Nature and art: the imitation of nature; cooperation with nature * 2b. Nature and convention: the state of nature and the state of society * 2c. Nature and nurture: the innate or native and the acquired; habit as second nature * 2d. Natural and violent motion * 2e. The natural and the unnatural or monstrous: the normal and the abnormal * 2f. The order of nature and the order of freedom: the phenomenal and the noumenal worlds; the antithesis of nature and spirit

3. The order of nature * 3a. The rationality of nature: the maxims and laws of nature * 3b. Continuity and hierarchy in the order of nature * 3c. Nature and causality * (1) The distinction between the regular and the chance event: the uniformity of nature * (2) The determinations of nature distinguished from the voluntary or free * (3) Teleology in nature: the operation of final causes * (4) Divine causality in relation to the course of nature: the preservation of nature; providence; miracles

4. Knowledge of nature or the natural * 4a. Nature or essence as an object of definition * 4b. Nature in relation to diverse types of science: the theoretic and the practical sciences; natural philosophy or science, mathematics, and metaphysics * 4c. Nature as an object of history

5. Nature or the natural as the standard of the right and the good * 5a. Human nature in relation to the good for man * 5b. Natural inclinations and natural needs with respect to property and wealth * 5c. The naturalness of the state and political obligation * 5d. The natural as providing a canon of beauty for production or judgment

6. Nature in religion and theology * 6a. The personification and worship of nature * 6b. Nature and grace in human life

REFERENCES

To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 Homer: Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d, the number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the passage is in section d of page 12.

PAGE SECTIONS: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 James: Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of the page. For example, in 7 Plato: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.

AUTHOR’S DIVISIONS: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH, SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in certain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d.

BIBLE REFERENCES: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTAMENT: Nehemiah, 7:45—(D) II Esdras, 7:46.

SYMBOLS: The abbreviation “esp” calls the reader’s attention to one or more especially relevant parts of a whole reference; “passim” signifies that the topic is discussed intermittently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.

For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.

1. Conceptions of nature

1a. Nature as the intrinsic source of a thing’s properties and behavior

7 PLATO: Cratylus, 105a-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK I, CH 1 259a-b; BK II, CH 1 268b,d-270a / Metaphysics, BK V, CH 4 534d-535c; CH 11 [1019a1-14] 540a; BK IX, CH 8 [1049b4-11] 575b / On the Soul, BK II, CH 4 [415b8-416a18] 645d-646c
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1252b30-34] 446a-b / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 10 [1369b31-b5] 612c-d
10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 1 167a-b; CH 12 172d-173c; BK II, CH 3 185a-186d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 3, A 3 16a-d; Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 29, A 1, REP 4 162a-163b; Q 39, A 2, ANS and REP 3 203b-204c; Q 60, A 2, ANS 311a-d; Q 115, A 2, ANS 587c-588c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 2, A 1 710a-711c; Q 17, A 2, ANS and REP 1,4 808d-809d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 384d-390b passim; 428a-d
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 4 137d-138b
31 DESCARTES: Discourse on the Method, PART V, 60b / Meditations on First Philosophy, III, 83c-d; IV, 90a-b; V, 93b-c; VI, 99c-100d / Objections and Replies, 126b-127c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 18, SCHOL-PROP 19 429a-d; PROP 37, SCHOL 1 434d-435b
35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXIII, SECT 3 204c-d; SECT 8 206a-b; CH XXXI, SECT 6 240d-241d; SECT 11 242d-243a; SECT 13 243a-b; CH XXXII, SECT 24 247c-d; BK III, CH III, SECT 15-19 258b-260a; CH VI 268b-283a passim, esp SECT 2-3 268c-d; CH IX, SECT 12 287d-288a
35 BERKELEY: The Principles of Human Knowledge, SECT 101-102 432c-433a
42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 133b [fn 1]
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 165b-c
49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 9a-10d passim

1a(1). The distinction between essential and individual nature: generic or specific properties, and individual, contingent accidents

8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK I, CH 4 100a-101b; BK II, CH 3 123c-124c / Topics, BK V, CH 3 [131b19-37] 182b-c / Physics, BK II, CH 1 [192b35-39] 269a; CH 7 [198b22-29] 275b-c; BK VII, CH 3 [246b3-9] 329c-d / On Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 11 [338b12-19] 440d-441a,c / Metaphysics, BK III, CH 1 [995b27-31] 514b; CH 3 517a-518a; BK V, CH 6 536a-537c; CH 8-9 538b-539a; CH 10 [1018a38-b8] 539b-c; CH 30 547a-d; BK VII, CH 10-15 558a-564c; BK X, CH 1 [1052a28-37] 578d; CH 3 [1054a30-1055a3] 581a-d; CH 8-9 585b-586c; BK XI, CH 1 [1059b21-1060a1] 587d-588a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [486a15-487a1] 7b-d / On the Generation of Animals, BK V, CH 1 [778a15-a19] 320a-321a
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK I [449-482] 6c-7a
17 PLOTINUS: The Second Ennead, TR II, CH 12 46c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 3, A 3 16a-d; A 4, ANS 16d-17c; Q 9, A 2, ANS 39c-40d; Q 13, A 9, ANS 71b-72c; Q 39, A 2, ANS 203b-204c; Q 41, A 5 222b-223b; Q 119, A 1, ANS and REP 2 604c-607b; PART I-II, Q 2, A 6, ANS 619d-620d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 49, A 2, ANS 2b-4a; Q 51, A 1, ANS 12b-13c; Q 85, A 6 182d-184a; PART III, Q 2, A 1, REP 2 710a-711c; A 2, ANS 711d-712d; PART III SUPPL, Q 81, A 3, REP 3 966a-c
35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK III, CH III, SECT 6-20 255c-260a; CH VI, SECT 32 277c-278b
38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 341c-342b passim
49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 28b-29a

1a(2). Nature or essence in relation to matter and form

8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK II, CH 1 [193a9-a21] 269b-270a; CH 2 [194a11-b15] 270c-271a; CH 8 [199a30-33] 276c; CH 9 277b-278a,c / Metaphysics, BK III, CH 3 [995b15-17] 513d; BK V, CH 4 [1014b27-1015a19] 535a-c; BK VI, CH 1 [1025b28-1026a6] 547d-548a; BK VII, CH 7-11 555a-561a; BK VII, CH 16-BK VIII, CH 6 564c-570d; BK X, CH 8-10 585b-586d; BK XI, CH 7 [1064a19-28] 592c; BK XII, CH 3 [1070a9-13] 599b-c / On the Soul, BK I, CH 1 [403a2-a19] 632a-d; BK II, CH 4 [415b8-416a18] 645d-646c
9 ARISTOTLE: On the Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [641a4-33] 163d-164b; [642a14-24] 165b
10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 5 169b-c; BK II, CH 3 185a-186d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK VII, SECT 23 281b; BK VIII, SECT 11 286b
17 PLOTINUS: The Fourth Ennead, TR II, CH 9-12 146d-149b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 3, A 3, ANS 16a-d; A 4, ANS 16d-17c; Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; A 4, REP 3 107d-108c; Q 19, A 1, ANS 108d-109c; Q 29, A 1, REP 4 162a-163b; A 2, REP 3 163b-164b; Q 39, A 2, ANS 203b-204c; Q 45, A 8 249b-250a; PART I-II, Q 1, A 3; ANS 611b-612a; A 5, ANS 613a-614a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 85, A 6 182d-184a; PART III, Q 2, A 1, ANS and REP 2 710a-711c; A 2, ANS 711d-712d; PART III SUPPL, Q 80, A 4, ANS and REP 1 959c-963a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 4 137d-138b; APH 29 159b-c
42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 186b-d

1b. Nature as the universe or the totality of things: the identification of God and nature; the distinction between natura naturans and natura naturata

12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK I [418-482] 6b-7a; [951-1051] 12d-14a; BK III [294-307] 18d-19a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 14 120d-121c
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 1 256b,d; SECT 3 257a-b; BK IV, SECT 29 266a; SECT 40 267a-b; BK V, SECT 8 269d-270b; SECT 30 273a; BK VI, SECT 36-45 277c-278c; BK VII, SECT 9 280b-c; SECT 19 281a; SECT 25 281c; SECT 75 285c; BK IX, SECT 8-9 292b-d; BK X, SECT 6-7 297a-c; BK XI, SECT 18 304b-305b; BK XII, SECT 30 310a-b
17 PLOTINUS: The Third Ennead, TR II, CH 16 90c-91c; TR VIII, CH 1-4 129a-131a / The Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 36-37 178c-179b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy, VI, 99c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART I, DEF 3-6 355b; AXIOM 1,3-5 355d; PROP 5-6 356b-c; PROP 8 356d-357d; PROP 10 358a-b; PROP 14-16 359d-362a; PROP 18 363c; PROP 24 365a; PROP 25, COROL 365b; PROP 28-31 365c-367a; PROP 33 367b-369a; PART II, PROP 1-2 373d-374a; PROP 6-7 374d-375c; PROP 9-10 376a-377a; PART IV, PREF 422b,d-424a; AXIOM 424c; PROP 2 425a; PROP 4 425b-d; APPENDIX, I 447a; VII-VIII 447d
42 KANT: Critique of Judgement, 564c-565d esp 565c-d; 566c-d; 580c-d
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 176b-c; 186d; 190b-c; PART I, 220c-221a; 245d-246c; PART II, 263d-265c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [430-521] 12b-15a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 115b-117a; 140a
49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 40d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 216d-218b; BK XIII, 581c-582a; BK XIV, 608a-b; BK XV, 631a-c

1c. Nature as the complex of the objects of sense: the realm of things existing under the determination of universal laws

42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 5d-6c; 15b-c; 25b-26b; 29d-33d esp 32c-33a; 49c-51d esp 51c-d; 88b-91d; 109d-110d; 133a esp 133b [fn 1]; 195a-c; 200c-209b esp 204c-205a / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 281c-282d; 283b; 285c-d / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 387a-b / Critique of Judgement, 550a-551a,c; 562a-b; 562d-563b; 574b-577a; 581a-b

2. The antitheses of nature or the natural

2a. Nature and art: the imitation of nature; cooperation with nature

5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [442-506] 44c-45a
5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [332-375] 134a-b
5 EURIPIDES: The Suppliants [195-218] 260a-b
7 PLATO: Gorgias, 260a-262a / Republic, BK II-III, 320c-334b; BK X, 427c-434c / Critias, 478a-d / Sophist, 561b-d; 577d-578d / Laws, BK II, 660a-662a; BK X, 760a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK II, CH 11 [95a3-9] 129d / Physics, BK II, CH 1 268b,d-270a; CH 2 [194a21-b13] 270c-271a; CH 8 [199a8-b33] 276b-277a / On Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 9 [335b18-336a13] 437b-d / Meteorology, BK IV, CH 12 [390b2-14] 494c / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 6 [988a1-7] 506a; BK VI, CH 1 [1025b19-25] 547d; BK VII, CH 7-9 555a-558a; BK VIII, CH 3 [1043b19-23] 568a-b; BK XI, CH 7 [1064a10-16] 592b-c; BK XII, CH 3 [1070a4-8] 599b / On the Soul, BK II, CH 1 [412a10-18] 642c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: On the Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [639b12-640a33] 161d-162d; [641b23-29] 164c-d / On the Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 21-22 269c-271a; BK II, CH 1 [734b17-735a4] 274c-275c; CH 6 [743a20-25] 285a; BK IV, CH 6 [775a17-23] 317b / Nicomachean Ethics, BK VI, CH 4 [1140a11-17] 388d / Politics, BK VII, CH 14 [1333a16-23] 538a; CH 17 [1336b39-1337a2] 542a,c; BK VIII, CH 5 [1339b42-1340a18] 545c-546a / Rhetoric, BK III, CH 2 [1404b2-26] 654c-655a / Poetics, CH 4 [1448b4-23] 682c-d; [1449a19-27] 683b; CH 24 [1459b17-1460a4] 695d-696a
10 HIPPOCRATES: On Surgery, PAR 15 73b-c / On Fractures, PAR 1-3 74b,d-76a
10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 7 170c-171a; CH 12 172d-173c; BK II, CH 3 185a-186d; CH 6, 189a-190a
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK IV [823-857] 55a-b; BK V [1361-1389] 78d-79a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 2 259d-260a; BK VI, SECT 40 277d; BK XI, SECT 10 303b-c
13 VIRGIL: Georgics 37a-99a esp BK I [118-159] 40a-41b
17 PLOTINUS: The Third Ennead, TR VIII, CH 2, 129b-c / The Fourth Ennead, TR III, CH 10, 147c-d; TR IV, CH 31, 174d-175a / The Fifth Ennead, TR VIII, CH 1 239b-240a
18 AUGUSTINE: On Christian Doctrine, BK II, CH 30 651c-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 45, A 2, ANS 242d-244a; Q 91, A 3, ANS 486b-487d; Q 93, A 2, REP 4 493a-d; Q 103, A 1, REP 1,3 528b-529a; Q 104, A 1, ANS 534c-536c; Q 110, A 2, REP 3 565d-566d; PART I-II, Q 1, A 6, ANS 614a-c; Q 2, A 1 615d-616c; Q 12, A 3, CONTRARY 670d-671b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 51, A 1, ANS 12b-13c; PART III SUPPL, Q 79, A 1, REP 4 951b-953b; A 2, REP 2,4 953b-955c; Q 80, A 1, ANS 956c-957c; A 2, ANS 957c-958b
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, HELL, XI [91-111] 16a-b; PURGATORY, X [22-99] 67c-68b esp [28-33] 67d; PARADISE, XXVI [124-138] 147a-b; XXVII [88-96] 148b
22 CHAUCER: The Physician’s Tale [11,941-972] 366b-367a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b; PART IV, 262c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 52c-d; 93b-d; 216c-219a; 368d-369a; 527d-529b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT III, SC II [1-39] 49a-b / King Lear, ACT IV, SC IV [1-15] 272b-c / Timon of Athens, ACT I, SC I [156-160] 395b-c / The Winter’s Tale, ACT IV, SC IV [79-103] 508c-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 385a-c; 400d-401a; 428a-c; 443d-444c esp 444b-c; 450c; 492a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 184a-187c; PART II, 251d-252a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 34b / Novum Organum, BK I, APH 3-4 107b; APH 66 114d-115c; BK II, APH 4 137d-138b; APH 29 159b-c; APH 41 173d-174b / New Atlantis, 203a-b
31 DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy, I, 76a-b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK V [291-297] 181b
33 PASCAL: Pensées, 21 175a; 29 176a; 32 176a-b; 120 195a / On Geometrical Demonstration, 437a
35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK III, CH VI, SECT 40 280a-b
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 195b-196a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 243a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on Political Economy, 368d-369a / The Social Contract, BK III, 419c-d
39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK II, 157a-b
40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 663d-664a
42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 188c-189a / Critique of Judgement, 495a-496c; 521b-524b esp 523c-d; 525a-528c esp 527b-528c; 557c-558b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 14, 61d
43 MILL: On Representative Government, 327b,d-328d
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART I, PAR 56 26b / The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 165b-c; PART I, 244b-c; PART II, 263d-265c; 267b-268b
47 GOETHE: Faust, PRELUDE [134-157] 4a-b
49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 41c-d; 87a-c; 233c-d
50 MARX: Capital, 16d-17a; 85a-88d
53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 186b
54 FREUD: The Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis, 2a / Civilization and Its Discontents, 778b-779d / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 877a-b

2b. Nature and convention: the state of nature and the state of society

7 PLATO: Protagoras, 52b / Cratylus 85a-114a,c esp 85a-87b, 110c-111c / Gorgias, 271b-272b; 273d-274c / Republic, BK III, 311b-313a / Theaetetus, 528b-c / Laws, BK X, 760a-c
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK VI, CH 2 [140a6-18] 193a; CH 3 [141a15-22] 194b-c / On Sophistical Refutations, CH 12 [173a7-18] 238b-c; [173a27-30] 238c
9 ARISTOTLE: Nicomachean Ethics, BK V, CH 7 382c-383a / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253a29-37] 446d; CH 6 448c-449b / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 15 [1375a25-b25] 619d-620b
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK II [14-37] 15a-c; BK IV [823-857] 55a-b; BK V [925-1027] 73b-74c
18 AUGUSTINE: The City of God, BK XIX, CH 12, 517d-518c / On Christian Doctrine, BK II, CH 24-26 648d-650a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 95; A 2 227c-228c; A 4, ANS 229b-230c; Q 97, A 3, REP 1 237b-238b
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, PARADISE, XXVI [124-138] 147a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 56d; 84c-96b; PART II, 99a-101a; 131a-c; 136d-137a; 138c; 159d; PART IV, 272c
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 63d-64b; 93b-94a; 102a-103a; 424d-426b; 430b-d; 509a-b
26 SHAKESPEARE: As You Like It 597a-626a,c esp ACT II, SC I [1-20] 603c-d, SC V 606b-607a, ACT II, SC VII [11-90] 609d-610c
27 SHAKESPEARE: All’s Well That Ends Well, ACT II, SC III [112-151] 152c-153a / King Lear, ACT I, SC II [1-22] 247d-248a / Timon of Athens 393a-420d esp ACT IV, SC I-ACT V, SC I 409c-419b / Cymbeline, ACT III, SC III [12-78] 465c-466b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20c-d; 62c-63a; 94d-95b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 37, SCHOL 2 435b-436a
33 PASCAL: Pensées, 89-98 189b-190b
35 LOCKE: A Letter Concerning Toleration, 16a-c / Concerning Civil Government, CH II-IX 25d-54d passim; CH XI, SECT 135-137 55d-57b / An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXVIII, SECT 2-3 228c-229b
38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK I 1a-3d; BK VIII, 52a; BK XVI, 119d-120a; BK XXVI, 215b-217b; 219d-221c
38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 329a-366d / A Discourse on Political Economy, 369a-b / The Social Contract, BK I 387b,d-394d; BK II, 399b-c; 405d-406a
39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK V, 397a-c
41 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 86d-87a
42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 222b-c / The Science of Right, 402c; 405d-406a; 433c-434d esp 434a; 435c-436b esp 435c-d; 437c-d; 450d-451a; 452a-d
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 51, 164c-d
43 MILL: On Liberty, 269c-d; 293b-302c passim / On Representative Government, 327b,d-332d passim / Utilitarianism, 459b-461c passim
44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 194a; 311b; 363c-364a
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART I, PAR 57 26b-27a; PAR 93 36a-b; PART III, PAR 187 65a-c; PAR 194 66c-d; ADDITIONS, 36 122b-c; 149 140d-141a; 152 141c-d; 164 144c-145a / The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 171b-172b; 196d-197a; PART II, 260b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XI, 514c-d
54 FREUD: The Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis, 20c-d / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 452c-d; 573c / Thoughts for the Times on War and Death, 757d-759d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 776b-802a,c esp 776b-777a, 780b-781d, 783c-784b, 787a-c, 788d-789b, 791b-792a, 799b-802a,c / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 853a-b

2c. Nature and nurture: the innate or native and the acquired; habit as second nature

7 PLATO: Republic, BK II-III, 319c-339a; BK V-VII, 368c-401d / Statesman, 605d-608d
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 8 [8b26-9a27] 13d-14b / Prior Analytics, BK II, CH 27 [70b6-39] 92c-93a,c / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 1 [981b31-982a1] 499d; BK IX, CH 5 [1047b31-34] 573a
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK IV, CH 9 [536b14-20] 63b / Nicomachean Ethics, BK II, CH 1 348b,d-349b; BK III, CH 5 [1114b32-1115a25] 360c-d; BK VI, CH 11 [1143b7-13] 393a; CH 13 394b-d; BK VII, CH 10 [1152a28-33] 403b / Politics, BK VII, CH 13 [1332a39-b10] 537a-b; CH 14 [1333a16-23] 538a; CH 17 [1336a3-22] 541a-b / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 11 [1370a5-14] 613b; BK III, CH 1 [1404a15-19] 654b; CH 2 [1405a7-9] 655b / Poetics, CH 22 [1459a5-7] 694d
10 HIPPOCRATES: On Airs, Waters, and Places, PAR 14 15a-b
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK III [288-322] 33d-34b
14 PLUTARCH: Coriolanus, 174b,d-175a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 76, A 5, REP 4 394c-396a; Q 83, A 1, REP 5 436d-438a; PART I-II, Q 32, A 2, REP 3 759d-760d; Q 38, REP 3 764c-765b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 49, AA 2-4 2b-6a; Q 51, A 1 12b-13c; Q 63, A 1 63a-64a; Q 82, A 1 168a-d
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, PARADISE, VIII [115-148] 118b-c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 54a; 60a-b; 61c-d; 66c-d; 68b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 60a-c; 63d-64b; 216c-219a; 489b-490c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT III, SC IV [157-170] 56b / Cymbeline, ACT III, SC III [79-107] 466b-c
28 HARVEY: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood, 285b-c / On Animal Generation, 428a-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 79a
31 DESCARTES: Discourse on the Method, PART V, 60b / Meditations on First Philosophy, VI, 99c-100d
35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK I 95b,d-121a,c passim
35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT IX, DIV 83-85 487c-488c esp DIV 85 488c
38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 329a-366d
39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK I, 7d-8a
43 MILL: On Liberty, 293b-302c passim / Utilitarianism, 459b-461c passim
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 187 65a-c / The Philosophy of History, PART III, 281d
49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 9b-10d; 65a-69c; 98c; 119a-d; 131c-134c esp 134c / The Descent of Man, 287d-288c; 304b,d [fn 5]
53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 49b-50a; 68a; 78b-79a; 691a-b; 704a-737a passim, esp 704a-705a, 707b-712b, 732b-735b, 737a; 890b-897a
54 FREUD: A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 530d-531c; 573c-d; 588c-589a; 591d-592b; 594d-595b / Thoughts for the Times on War and Death, 757a-759d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 781a-c

2d. Natural and violent motion

7 PLATO: Timaeus, 463d-464b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK IV, CH 1 [208b9-22] 287b; CH 8 [215a1-13] 294c-d; BK V, CH 6 [230b18-231a19] 311c-312d; BK VIII, CH 4 338d-340d / On the Heavens, BK I, CH 2 [268b12]-CH 3 [270b13] 359d-361b; CH 7 [274b30-33] 366a; [275b12-29] 366d-367a; CH 7 [276a8]-CH 8 [277a25] 367b-369a; CH 9 [278b22-279a8] 370a-b; BK II, CH 13 [294b31-295a29] 386b-d; BK III, CH 2 391c-393b; CH 5 [304a11-23] 395d-396a; CH 6 [305a22-28] 396c / On Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 6 [333b22-334a9] 434c-435a / Metaphysics, BK V, CH 5 [1015a9-16] 536a; BK IX, CH 1 [1046a34-36] 571b; BK XII, CH 6 [1071b33-37] 601d / On the Soul, BK I, CH 3 [406a22-27] 635c
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK I [1052-1094] 14a-c; BK II [184-215] 17b-d
16 PTOLEMY: The Almagest, BK I, 11a-b; BK III, 86b; BK IX, 270b
16 COPERNICUS: On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, BK I, 517b-520b
16 KEPLER: Epitome of Copernican Astronomy, BK IV, 929b-930b
17 PLOTINUS: The Second Ennead, TR I, CH 8, 39d / The Sixth Ennead, TR I, CH 26 296a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 18, A 1, REP 2 104c-105c; Q 97, A 2, ANS 514c-515a; Q 105, A 4, REP 1 541c-542a; A 6, REP 1 543b-544a; PART I-II, Q 6, A 1, ANS 644d-646a; A 4, ANS and REP 2-3 647b-648a; A 5 ANS and REP 2-3 648b-649a; Q 9, A 4, REP 2 660a-d; Q 41, A 3 799c-800b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 75, A 3, ANS and REP 3-5 938a-939d; Q 91, A 2, ANS and REP 6 1017c-1020c
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, PARADISE, I [94-142] 107b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 50a; PART IV, 271d
28 GILBERT: On the Loadstone, BK VI, 109a-b; 110b-d
28 GALILEO: Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 157d-158a; THIRD DAY, 200a-d; 203d; FOURTH DAY, 238a-b
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK I, APH 66, 115b-c; BK II, APH 36 164a-168d; APH 48 179d-188b

2e. The natural and the unnatural or monstrous: the normal and the abnormal

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 18:16-19:38 esp 19:4-9, 19:30-38 / Exodus, 22:19 / Leviticus, 18 esp 18:22-23; 20:10-24 / Deuteronomy, 27:21 / Judges, 19:22
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 14:22-27—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 14:22-27
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 1:24-27 / I Corinthians, 5:1-5
5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [1298-1421] 111b-112b
6 HERODOTUS: The History, BK III, 102d-103a; 114a-b; 122a; BK VII, 281c
7 PLATO: Cratylus, 90a-91a / Laws, BK I, 645d-646a; BK VIII, 735c-738b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK II, CH 8 [199b33-b13] 276c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK III, CH 20 [522a13-21] 47a-b; BK VI, CH 2 [559b16-20] 86b; CH 22 [576b1-2] 101c / On the Generation of Animals, BK IV, CH 3-4 308d-315b esp CH 4 [770b10-24] 312b-c; CH 8 [777a14-22] 319b
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK II [700-710] 23d-24a; BK V [837-854] 72a-b; [878-924] 72c-73a
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK III, PAR 15 17a-b / The City of God, BK XXII, CH 22 606d-607a / On Christian Doctrine, BK IV, CH 21, 692d-693c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 21, A 1, REP 1-2 717a-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 151d-152a
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 5c-6b; 8c-9c; BK III, 191c-193c; BK IV, 273c-274b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 80b-81b; 343c-344a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 3rd Henry VI, ACT II, SC V [55-122] 82b-d; ACT V, SC VI [35-83] 103c-104a / Richard III, ACT I, SC I [1-31] 105b,d; SC II [1-67] 107c-108b / Richard II, ACT II, SC IV [7-24] 334c-d / Julius Caesar, ACT II, SC II 578a-579c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT III, SC II [406-417] 53b; SC IV [39-101] 55a-c / Troilus and Cressida, ACT I, SC III [75-137] 108d-109c / Othello, ACT I, SC I [59-81] 208b-c; SC III [58-119] 209c-210b; ACT III, SC III [228-238] 224c-d / King Lear 244a-283a,c esp ACT I, SC I [211-226] 246d, SC IV [283-311] 252d-253b, ACT IV, SC II [29-68] 270d-271b / Macbeth, ACT II, SC IV 294a-c / Pericles, ACT I, PROLOGUE [1]-SC I [142] 421b-423b
28 HARVEY: On the Circulation of the Blood, 305a-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 33b-d / Novum Organum, BK II, APH 29 159b-c
35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK III, CH III, SECT 17 258d-259b; CH VI, SECT 22-27 273d-276a; BK IV, CH IV, SECT 13-16 326d-328d
36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART IV, 155b-157a
38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK XII, 87d-88a
38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 363a-366d
41 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 93d-94a
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 183c-d
49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 24a-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XI, 525c
53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 241b-258b
54 FREUD: The Unconscious, 433c / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 530d; 570a-572d / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 830d-831a

2f. The order of nature and the order of freedom: the phenomenal and the noumenal worlds; the antithesis of nature and spirit

12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK II [251-293] 18b-d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART I, PROP 26-29 365b-366c; PROP 32-33 367a-369a; PROP 36 369b; APPENDIX 369b-372d passim; PART III, 395a-d; PART IV, PROP 57, SCHOL 441a-c
42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 93c-99a; 101b-107b; 133a-c; 164a-170d esp 164a-165c, 169c-170a / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 253a-c; 271a-c; 275b; 281c-282d; 283d-287d / Critique of Practical Reason, 292a-293b; 296a-d; 301d-302d; 307d-314d; 327d-329a; 331c-337a,c / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 383c-d; 386b-387a,c; 388a-d; 390b / Critique of Judgement, 463a-467a esp 465a-c; 570b-572b esp 571c-572a; 587a-588a; 603a-b; 607c; 609b-610a
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PREF, 6a-7a; PART I, PAR 39 21d; PART III, PAR 187 65a-c; PAR 280 94d-95a; PAR 352 112b; ADDITIONS, 1 115a-d; 152 141c-d; 164 144c-145a; 167 145c / The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 164b-c; 170c-172b; 178a-179c; 186b-c; 203b-206a,c; PART I, 207a-209a; 222a-224a; 236a-c; 245d-246c; 247c-d; 252a-255a; 257c-d; PART II, 268b-271c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 689c-690a; 693d-694d

3. The order of nature

3a. The rationality of nature: the maxims and laws of nature

7 PLATO: Meno, 180a / Phaedo, 240d-242b / Timaeus, 447b-455d esp 455a-d / Sophist, 567a-569a / Philebus, 618b-619d
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK I, CH 4 [188a5-12] 263b; BK II, CH 8 [199a8-b33] 276b-277a / On the Heavens, BK I, CH 4 [271a34] 362c / On Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 10 [336b25-34] 438d / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 3 [984b8-22] 502d; BK II, CH 2 [994b8-16] 512d-513a / On Prophesying by Dreams, CH 2 [463b11-15] 708a
9 ARISTOTLE: On the Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [639b12-640a12] 161d-162b; BK III, CH 4 [665b19-22] 193c; BK IV, CH 6 [683a20-25] 214b / On the Gait of Animals, CH 2 [704b12-18] 243c; CH 12 [710b15-20] 249b / On the Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [715a25-b17] 255b-d; CH 4 [717a13-18] 257a; BK II, CH 4 [739b19-21] 280c; CH 5 [741a2-4] 282c; CH 6 [744b36-745a1] 285c-286d / Politics, BK I, CH 8 [1256b8-26] 450b-c
10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 6, 170b-c; CH 12 172d-173c esp 173c; CH 13, 175c; BK II, CH 4, 187c
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK I [146-264] 2d-4b; BK III [294-307] 18d-19a; [1077-1089] 28d; BK V [306-310] 65a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 4 257b; BK IV, SECT 40 267a-b; SECT 45-46 267b-c; BK V, SECT 30 273a; BK VI, SECT 1 274a; SECT 36 277c; SECT 40 277d; BK VII, SECT 25 281c; SECT 75 285c; BK X, SECT 6-7 297a-c
16 COPERNICUS: On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, BK I, 526a-529a
16 KEPLER: The Harmonies of the World, 1023b-1080b
17 PLOTINUS: The Third Ennead, TR VII 129a-136a esp CH 2-4 129b-131a / The Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 13 164d-165b
18 AUGUSTINE: On Christian Doctrine, BK II, CH 32 652b-c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 2, A 3, ANS and REP 2 12c-14a; Q 19, A 4, ANS 111c-112c; Q 71, A 1, REP 4 367a-368b; Q 76, A 5, ANS 394c-396a; PART I-II, Q 1, A 2 610b-611b; Q 5, A 5, REP 1 640b-641a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 9, A 4, ANS 766b-767b
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, PARADISE, VIII [91-148] 117d-118c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 56d
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III, 192b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 80b-81b; 216c-219a esp 218c-219a; 516b-c
28 GILBERT: On the Loadstone, BK I, 12a-b; BK VI, 110d
28 GALILEO: Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 131d-132a; 135b-136b; THIRD DAY, 200a-d
28 HARVEY: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood, 285c; 302c-304a,c / On Animal Generation, 390b-c; 402c; 426b-429b; 447b-d; 453c-454b; 489d
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, xla
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 92c-d / Novum Organum, BK I, APH 10,13 107d; APH 24 108c; BK II, APH 6 139b-c; APH 43 175a-c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse on the Method, PART V, 54c; 55a-56a esp 55b; 59a / Objections and Replies, 214d-215b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART I, PROP 29, SCHOL 366b-c; PROP 33, SCHOL 1-2 367c-369a; APPENDIX 369b-372d; PART III, 395a-d; PART IV, PREF 422b,d-424a
33 PASCAL: Pensées, 72, 184b; 75 185b-186a / Treatise on the Vacuum, 359a-365b / The Great Experiment Concerning the Equilibrium of Fluids 382a-389b esp 388b-389a / On the Weight of the Mass of the Air, 405b-415b; 425a-429a
34 NEWTON: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, BK III, RULE I-II 270a-271a esp RULE I 270a / Optics, BK I, 409b; BK III, 528b-529a; 540a; 542a-543a
35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK IV, CH III, SECT 28-29 322a-323a
35 BERKELEY: The Principles of Human Knowledge, SECT 29-33 418c-419a passim; SECT 62-66 425a-426a; SECT 103-109 433a-434b passim; SECT 150-151 442d-443c
35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT V, DIV 44 468d-469c; SECT VI, DIV 47 470b-d; SECT VIII, DIV 64-70 478d-482c passim
38 ROUSSEAU: The Social Contract, BK II, 397a
42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 127a-128a; 220a-b / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 256d-257a; 264d-265a / Critique of Judgement, 467d-468c; 550b-551a,c; 558b-c; 559c-d; 583d-584c
45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART I, 41b-c
45 FOURIER: Analytical Theory of Heat, 169a-b; 173b; 175b; 177a; 183a-b; 184a
45 FARADAY: Experimental Researches in Electricity, 582b-584a passim; 839b-c
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PREF, 6a-7a; PART III, PAR 146 55c-d; ADDITIONS, 1 115a-d / The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-160b; 183c-d; 186d; PART IV, 361a-c
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [447-453] 13a
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 231a
49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 71a-c; 91b-92d esp 92c-d; 97a-98a,c; 243c-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XI, 469a-470c; BK XIII, 563a-b; EPILOGUE II, 687d-688a; 693d-696d
53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 5a; 503b; 672a; 862a-866a; 870b; 873a-b; 882a-886b esp 884b-885a; 889a-890a

3b. Continuity and hierarchy in the order of nature

7 PLATO: Timaeus, 447b-458a / Philebus, 618b-619d
8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 13 20b-d / Topics, BK VI, CH 10 [148a23-38] 202b-c; Physics, BK VIII, CH 1 [250b11-14] 334a / On the Heavens, BK I, CH 2 359d-360d; BK II, CH 12 383b-384c / On Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 10 [336b25-34] 438d / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 6 505b-506b; CH 7 [988b34-989a5] 506c; CH 9 508c-511c; BK XIV, CH 3 [1090b14-21] 623b / On the Soul, BK I, CH 5 [411b7-23] 641a-b; BK II, CH 2 [413a20-b4] 643b-c; BK III, CH 11 [433b31-434a9] 666d / On Sleep and Sleeplessness, CH 1 696a-697c
9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK VIII, CH 1 114b,d-115b / On the Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 5 [644b23-645b26] 168c-169a; BK IV, CH 5 [681a12-15] 211d; CH 10 [686b23-35] 218b-c / On the Generation of Animals, BK II, CH 1 [731b24-733b17] 272a-274a
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK I [418-448] 6b-c; BK II [865-930] 26a-d; BK V [783-836] 71b-72a
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK II, CH 8, 146a-b
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK V, SECT 8 269d-270b; SECT 16 271c-d; BK IX, SECT 9 292b-d; BK XI, SECT 18, 304b-c
17 PLOTINUS: The Second Ennead, TR III, CH 13 46c-47b / The Third Ennead, TR III, CH 3 93d-94c
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK VII, PAR 16-23 48c-50c / The City of God, BK XI, CH 22 333d-334c; BK XII, CH 2-5 343c-345b; BK XIX, CH 12-17, 518c-523a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 18, A 3 106b-107c; Q 23, A 5, REP 3 135d-137d; Q 47, A 2 257b-258c; Q 48, A 2, ANS and REP 3 260c-261b; Q 50, A 1, ANS and REP 1 269b-270a; A 4 273b-274b; Q 57, A 1, ANS 295a-d; Q 71, A 1, REP 4 367a-368b; Q 75, A 7 384d-385c; Q 76, A 3, ANS 391a-393a; A 5, REP 3-4 394c-396a; Q 77, A 2 401a-d; A 4, REP 1 403a-d; Q 108 552c-562a esp A 4 555b-d; Q 110, A 3, ANS 566d-567b; PART I-II, Q 1, A 4, REP 1 612a-613a; Q 5, A 1, REP 3 636d-637c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III, Q 7, A 9, ANS 751d-752c
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, PARADISE, I [94-142] 107b-d; XIII [52-87] 126a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 218c-219a
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT I, SC III [75-139] 108d-109c
28 HARVEY: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood, 277b-278d esp 278b-c / On Animal Generation, 336b-d; 400d-401a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 30 159c-d; APH 35 162a-164a; APH 37 168d-169c; APH 41 173d-174b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK V [469-505] 185b-186a
33 PASCAL: Pensées, 119-121 195a
35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH IX, SECT 12 140c; BK III, CH VI, SECT 11-12 271b-272b; BK IV, CH XVI, SECT 12, 370c-371a
42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 193a-200c esp 199c-200c / Critique of Judgement, 578d-580a esp 579b-c; 582b-c
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37, 119b-d
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 183c-d
49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 55b-62a; 63d-64d; 179b-180d; 228c-229a,c; 238b-243d esp 241b-c, 243b-d / The Descent of Man, 340d-341d
53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 51a-52a; 95b-98a; 686b
54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651d-654b esp 652b-c, 653b, 654a

3c. Nature and causality

7 PLATO: Timaeus, 455a-b / Philebus, 615c-619d esp 618b-c / Laws, BK X, 764a-765a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK II 268b,d-278a,c; BK VIII, CH 1 334a-336b esp [252a5-7] 335d-336b / On Generation and Corruption, BK I, CH 3 413c-416c; BK II, CH 9-10 436d-439c / On the Soul, BK II, CH 4 [415b8-416a18] 645d-646c
9 ARISTOTLE: On the Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [639b11-642a4] 161d-165d esp [642a1-a4] 165a-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK VI, SECT 10 274b-c; BK VII, SECT 19 281a; SECT 25 281c; SECT 75 285c
17 PLOTINUS: The Third Ennead, TR I, CH 1 78a-c / The Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 32-39 175c-180a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 2, A 3, ANS and REP 2 12c-14a; Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; PART I-II, Q 12, A 5, ANS 672a-c
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, PARADISE, VIII [94-148] 118a-c; XIII [52-87] 126a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 113b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 80b-81b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43d-46a / Novum Organum, BK II, APH 3-5 137c-139a; APH 17 149b-d; APH 27 157b-158d
31 DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy, IV, 90a-b / Objections and Replies, 214d-215b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART I, PROP 29 366b-c; PROP 33 367b-369a; PROP 36 369b; APPENDIX 369b-372d; PART II, PROP 7 375a-c; PART III, 395a-d; PART IV, PREF 422b,d-424a; PROP 57, SCHOL 441a-c
33 PASCAL: Pensées, 119-121 195a
34 NEWTON: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, BK III, RULE I-II 270a
35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT VI, DIV 47 470b-d; SECT VIII, DIV 67 480c-481a
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 502b-503a
38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK I, 1a-b
38 ROUSSEAU: The Social Contract, BK II, 397a
42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 140b,d-143a; 187c-189a / Critique of Practical Reason, 339a / Critique of Judgement, 467a-470c; 557c-558b; 562d-564c; 568c-d; 581a-582c
45 FARADAY: Experimental Researches in Electricity, 582b-584a passim
49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 284c-285c esp 285b-c
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK IX, 344a-b; BK XI, 469a-470c; BK XIII, 563a-b; EPILOGUE I, 646c-647b; 650b-c; EPILOGUE II, 678b-c; 679b-c; 687d-688a; 691d; 693b; 694d-696d
53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 824a-825a; 856b-858a

3c(1). The distinction between the regular and the chance event: the uniformity of nature

7 PLATO: Timaeus, 455a-b
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK I, CH 13 [32b4-23] 48b-d / Posterior Analytics, BK I, CH 4 [73a10-16] 100c-d; CH 30 119d; BK II, CH 11 [94b39-95a9] 129c-d / Physics, BK II, CH 4-6 272c-275a; CH 8 [198b16-199a8] 275d-276b; [199b33-b26] 276c-277a / On the Heavens, BK II, CH 8 [289b22-28] 381b / On Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 6 [333b3-20] 434b-c / Metaphysics, BK V, CH 30 [1025a13-29] 547a-c; BK VI, CH 2 [1026b27-1027b18] 549a-b; CH 3 549c-d; BK XI, CH 8 593a-d
9 ARISTOTLE: On the Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [640a18-33] 162c-d; [641b13-31] 164c-d / On the Generation of Animals, BK IV, CH 4 [770b10-24] 312b-c / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 10 [1369b31-b5] 612c-d
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK II [251-293] 18b-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK VI, SECT 46 278c-d; BK VII, SECT 1 279b; SECT 49 282d; BK IX, SECT 9 292b-d; SECT 28 293d-294a; BK X, SECT 27 299d; BK XI, SECT 27 306b
17 PLOTINUS: The Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 32-39 175c-180a
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 2, A 3, ANS 12c-14a; Q 22, A 2, REP 1 128d-130d; Q 57, A 3, ANS 297b-298a; Q 103, A 1, ANS 528b-529a; A 5, REP 1 531b-532b; A 7, REP 2 533b-d; Q 116, A 1 592d-593d; A 3 594c-595a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 84, A 1, REP 3 174b-175a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 412c-413a
30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 33 161b-d; APH 36-37 164a-169c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART I, PROP 29 366b-c; APPENDIX 369b-372d; PART III, 395a-d; PART IV, PREF 422b,d-424a
34 NEWTON: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, BK III, RULE I-II 270a
35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK III, CH VI, SECT 36-37 279a-b; BK IV, CH III, SECT 28-29 322a-323a passim
35 BERKELEY: The Principles of Human Knowledge, SECT 29-33 418c-419a passim; SECT 57 423d-424a; SECT 60-66 424b-426a passim; SECT 103-109 433a-434b passim; SECT 146 442a-b; SECT 150-151 442d-443c
35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT VI, DIV 47 470b-d; SECT VIII, DIV 64-70 478d-482c passim, esp DIV 67 480c-481a; SECT X, DIV 90, 491a-b
42 KANT: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 264d-265a / Critique of Judgement, 558b-c; 566a-b
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 183c-d
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [10,198-233] 248b-249b
49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 65a / The Descent of Man, 593d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE I, 646c-647b
53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 864a
54 FREUD: A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 454b-c

3c(2). The determinations of nature distinguished from the voluntary or free

7 PLATO: Phaedo, 240d-242b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK VIII, CH 1 [251a28-b1] 334d-335a / Metaphysics, BK IX, CH 2 571c-572a; CH 5 573a-c; CH 7 [1048b35-1049a18] 574c-d
9 ARISTOTLE: Rhetoric, BK I, CH 10 [1368b28-1369a27] 612a-613a
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK II [251-293] 18b-d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 2, A 3, REP 2 12c-14a; Q 6, A 1, REP 2 28b-d; Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 19, A 3, REP 3 110b-111c; A 4 111c-112c; Q 22, A 2, REP 4 128d-130d; Q 41, A 2, ANS 218c-219d; A 6, ANS 223b-224a; Q 46, A 1, REP 9-10 250a-252d; Q 47, A 1, REP 1 256a-257b; Q 59, A 1, ANS 306c-307b; Q 70, A 3, ANS and REP 4-5 365b-367a; Q 78, A 1, REP 3 407b-409a; Q 83, A 1, REP 3 436d-438a; Q 103, A 1, REP 1,3 528b-529a; Q 105, A 1, REP 2 538d-539c; PART I-II, Q 1, A 2 610b-611b; A 3, ANS and REP 3 611b-612a; A 5, ANS 613a-614a; Q 6, A 1 644d-646a; Q 8, A 1, ANS 655b-656a; Q 9, A 4, REP 1 660a-d; Q 10, A 1 662d-663d; Q 11, A 2, ANS 667b-d; Q 12, A 5, ANS 672a-c; Q 13, A 6 676c-677b; Q 17, AA 8-9 692a-693d; Q 21, A 1, ANS and REP 1-2 717a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 49, A 4, ANS and REP 1-2 5a-6a; Q 50, A 1, ANS and REP 1 6a-7b; A 2, ANS 7c-8a; A 3 8b-9a; A 5, REP 1,3 10b-d; Q 51, A 1 12b-13c; Q 55, A 1, ANS and REP 5 26b-27a; Q 72, A 3, ANS and REP 1-2 113b-114a
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVII [82]-XVIII [75] 79b-80c; PARADISE, I [94-142] 107b-d; XXVI [124-138] 147a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 61a-b
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 218c-219a
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 456c-458a passim
31 DESCARTES: Discourse on the Method, PART V, 60b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART I, APPENDIX 369b-372d; PART III, 395a-d; PART IV, PROP 57, SCHOL 441a-c
35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT VIII, DIV 64-72 478d-483c passim
38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 337d-338a
42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 140b,d-143a; 164a-171a esp 164a-165c / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 264d-265a; 275b; 276a-277a; 279b,d-287d esp 282b-283d, 285c-286a / Critique of Practical Reason, 296a-d; 319c-321b; 331c-337a,c / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 386d-387a,c / Critique of Judgement, 463a-467a; 571c-572a
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 194 66c-d; ADDITIONS, 1 115a-d; 152 141c-d / The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 171b-c; 178a-179c; 186b-c; PART I, 207b-c; 236a-c; 247c-d
49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 288b
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 688a-694d
53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 84a-94b esp 90b-93a; 291a-295b esp 291a-b; 387b-388a; 704b-706b esp 706b; 820b-825a
54 FREUD: The Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis, 13c / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 453b-467b esp 454b-c, 462d; 486c-488c esp 486d

3c(3). Teleology in nature: the operation of final causes

7 PLATO: Phaedo, 241b-242b / Timaeus, 447d-448a; 455a-b; 465d-466a
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK II, CH 11 [94b26-95a9] 129c-d / Physics, BK I, CH 9 [192a16-24] 268b-c; BK II, CH 1 [193b12-19] 269d-270a; CH 2 [194a27-b13] 270d-271a; CH 8-9 275d-278a,c / On the Heavens, BK II, CH 12 383b-384c / On Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 6 [333b3-20] 434b-c / Meteorology, BK IV, CH 12 493d-494d / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 2 [982b4-11] 500d; CH 7 [988b6-15] 506c-d; CH 9 [992a29-34] 510c; BK II, CH 2 [994b8-16] 512d-513a; BK III, CH 2 [996a22-36] 514d-515a; BK V, CH 4 [1014b34-1015a10] 535b; BK XII, CH 7 [1072b1-4] 602c; CH 10 [1075a12-b16] 605d-606c / On the Soul, BK II, CH 4 [415b15-22] 645d-646a; CH 8 [420b16-23] 652a; BK III, CH 9 [432b21-26] 665b-c; CH 12-13 667a-668d passim / On Sleep and Sleeplessness, CH 2 [455b13-28] 698b-c / On Prophesying by Dreams, CH 2 [463b11-15] 708a
9 ARISTOTLE: On the Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [639b12-640a12] 161d-162b; [641b11-642a4] 164c-165d; CH 5 [645a23-26] 169a; BK II-IV 170a-229d passim, esp BK II, CH 1 [646b25-b27] 170b-d, BK III, CH 2 [663b22-23] 191b, BK IV, CH 2 [677a15-19] 206d-207a / On the Gait of Animals, CH 2 [704b12-18] 243c; CH 8 [708a9-21] 246c-d; CH 12 249b-d / On the Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [715a1-18] 255a-b; CH 4-13 257a-260b passim; BK II, CH 5 [741a2-4] 282c; CH 6 [742b16-17] 283b-d; [744b37-745a5] 285c-286d; BK III, CH 4 296b-c; BK IV, CH 3 [767b6-16] 309a; BK V, CH 1 [778a16-a19] 320a-321a; CH 8 [788b22-789b15] 330c-331a,c / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1252b30-1253a1] 446a-b; CH 8 [1256b8-26] 450b-c
10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties 167a-215d esp BK I, CH 6, 170b-c, CH 10 171b-172b, CH 12 172d-173, CH 13, 174d-175c, BK II, CH 3 185a-186d, CH 4, 187c, BK III, CH 1 199a-c, CH 3 200a-201a
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK I [1022-1037] 13c-d; BK II [1052-1063] 28b-c; BK IV [823-857] 55a-b; BK V [76-90] 62a-b; [156-234] 63a-64a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK V, SECT 8 269d-270b; BK VI, SECT 40 277d
16 COPERNICUS: On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, BK I, 511b
16 KEPLER: Epitome of Copernican Astronomy, BK IV, 846b-847a; 857b-860b; 863b-887a passim; 913a-b; 915b-916a; 925b-928a; 932a-933a / The Harmonies of the World, 1023b-1080b esp 1049b-1050a
17 PLOTINUS: The Second Ennead, TR II, CH 1 40a-41a / The Fifth Ennead, TR VIII, CH 7 242d-243c
18 AUGUSTINE: The City of God, BK XI, CH 22 333d-334c; BK XII, CH 4-5 344b-345b; BK XIX, CH 12-13, 518c-520a; BK XXII, CH 24, 610c-611c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 2, A 3, ANS and REP 2 12c-14a; Q 5, A 4, ANS 25d-26c; Q 6, A 1, REP 2 28b-d; Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 19, A 1, ANS 108d-109c; A 4, ANS 111c-112c; Q 22 127c-132b; Q 23, A 1, ANS and REP 1-2 132c-133b; Q 44, A 4, REP 3 241a-d; Q 59, A 1, ANS 306c-307b; Q 60, A 5 313b-314c; Q 65, A 2, ANS 340b-341b; Q 70, A 3, ANS 365b-367a; Q 76, A 5, ANS 394c-396a; Q 78, A 1, REP 3 407b-409a; Q 82, A 4, ANS 434c-435c; Q 85, A 3, REP 1 455b-457a; Q 91, A 3 486b-487d; Q 92, A 1, REP 1 488d-489d; Q 98, A 1, ANS 516d-517c; Q 103 528a-534b; PART I-II, Q 1, A 2 610b-611b; A 3, ANS and REP 3 611b-612a; A 6, ANS 614a-c; A 8 615a-c; Q 2, A 5, REP 3 618d-619c; Q 8, A 1, ANS 655b-656a; Q 12, A 5, ANS 672a-c; Q 21, A 1, ANS and REP 1-2 717a-d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 75, A 3, ANS and REP 4 938a-939d
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVIII [19-39] 80a-b; PARADISE, I [94-142] 107b-d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 50a; PART IV, 271d
28 HARVEY: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood, 271b-273a; 285c; 302c-304a,c / On the Circulation of the Blood, 309b-d / On Animal Generation, 349a-b; 355c-d; 390b-c; 401b; 402c; 418b-c; 426b-429b passim; 439c-440a; 442d-443c; 447a-b; 453c; 454b-c; 461a-c; 462c-d
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 43a-d; 45a-46a / Novum Organum, BK I, APH 48 110d-111a
31 DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy, IV, 90a-b / Objections and Replies, 214d-215b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART I, APPENDIX 369b-372d; PART IV, PREF 422b,d-424a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK V [469-505] 185b-186a
33 PASCAL: Pensées, 72, 184b; 75 185b-186a
34 NEWTON: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, BK III, GENERAL SCHOL, 371a / Optics, BK III, 528b-529a
35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH I, SECT 15 124d-125b esp 125b
35 BERKELEY: The Principles of Human Knowledge, SECT 60-66 424b-426a passim; SECT 107 433d-434a
35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT V, DIV 44, 469b-c; SECT XI, DIV 111 501b-c
36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 229b-230a
42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 127a-128a; 187a-190a; 205b-209b; 220a-b; 239a-240b / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 256d-257a / Critique of Judgement, 467d-470b; 473a-474b; 523c-d; 550a-613a,c esp 550a-562a,c, 568c-570b, 575b-578a, 587a-588a
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 157b-c; 161d-162a
49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 40c-42a esp 41c-d; 60b-61d; 95d-97a; 217d-218a; 243b-d / The Descent of Man, 474a-b; 593d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE I, 646c-647b; 650b-c
53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 4a-6b; 671b [fn 1]
54 FREUD: On Narcissism, 401b / Instincts and Their Vicissitudes, 415b / Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651d-654c

3c(4). Divine causality in relation to the course of nature: the preservation of nature; providence; miracles

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1-2; 7-8; 11:1-9; 17:15-21; 18:9-15; 21:1-8 / Exodus, 3-4; 7-12; 13:20-22; 14:19-31; 15:22-25; 16:1-17:7 / Numbers, 12; 16-17; 20:1-13; 21:4-9; 22:21-34 / Joshua, 3; 6:1-20; 10:12-14—(D) Josue, 3; 6:1-20; 10:12-14 / I Samuel, 12:14-20—(D) I Kings, 12:14-20 / I Kings, 17-19—(D) III Kings, 17-19 / Nehemiah, 9—(D) II Esdras, 9 / Job, 12:7-10; 36:24-42:2 / Psalms, 8; 18:6-17; 19:1-6; 65; 78; 89:8-12; 104; 106-107; 136; 147:7-20—(D) Psalms, 8; 17:7-18; 18:1-7; 64; 77; 88:9-13; 103; 105-106; 135; 146:7-147:20 / Jeremiah, 10:12-13; 31:35—(D) Jeremias, 10:12-13; 31:35 / Amos, 5:8; 8:8-12 / Jonah—(D) Jonas
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 11:24-25—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 11:25-26 / Ecclesiasticus, 43—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 43
NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 1:18-25; 6:25-34; 8-9 esp 8:1-3, 9:27-36; 14:14-36; 15:30-39 / Luke, 1:5-66; 5:4-15; 13:11-13 / John, 2:1-11; 9:1-34; 11:31-45 / Acts, 3:1-16; 17:28 / Romans, 11:36 / Colossians, 1:16-17
7 PLATO: Timaeus, 465d-466a / Sophist, 577d-578b / Laws, BK X 757d-771b passim
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK I, CH 9 [192a16-24] 268b-c; BK II, CH 4 [196a5-7] 273a; CH 7 [198a22-29] 275b-c; [198b35-b3] 275c / On the Heavens, BK I, CH 4 [271a34] 362c; BK II, CH 12 383b-384c / On Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 10 [336b25-34] 438d; [337a15-23] 439a-b / Metaphysics, BK XII, CH 10 [1075a12-b24] 605d-606a / On the Soul, BK II, CH 4 [415a22-b8] 645c-d / On Prophesying by Dreams, CH 2 [463b11-15] 708a
10 HIPPOCRATES: On Airs, Waters, and Places, PAR 22 17b-18a / On the Sacred Disease 154a-160d esp 154a-155d, 160b-d
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK I [146-158] 2d-3a; [1022-1037] 13c-d; BK II [167-183] 17a-b; [1090-1104] 29a; BK V [76-90] 62a-b; [156-234] 63a-64a; [306-310] 65a; [1161-1240] 76b-77b; BK VI [43-79] 80d-81b; [379-422] 85b-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 6 110c-112b; CH 16 121d-122d; BK III, CH 17 191d-192a; CH 22 195a-201a; BK IV, CH 3 224b-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 4 257b; BK VII, SECT 75 285c; BK IX, SECT 28 293d-294a; BK XII, SECT 14 308c
14 PLUTARCH: Nicias, 435b-d
16 KEPLER: The Harmonies of the World, 1049b-1050a; 1061a
18 AUGUSTINE: The City of God, BK XI, CH 22 333d-334c; BK XII, CH 4-5 344b-345b; BK XIX, CH 12-14, 518c-520c; BK XXI, CH 4-8 562a-568d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 2, A 3, ANS and REP 2 12c-14a; Q 3, A 1, ANS 14b-15b; A 2, ANS 15c-16a; A 8, ANS and REP 1-2 19d-20c; Q 8 34c-38c; Q 14, A 8 82c-83b; Q 18, A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 19, A 4 111c-112c; A 5, REP 2-3 112d-113c; Q 22 127c-132b; Q 23, A 1, ANS and REP 1-2 132c-133b; QQ 44-46 238a-255d esp Q 45, A 8 249b-250a; Q 51, A 3, REP 3 277a-278c; Q 52, A 2 279b-280a; Q 56, A 2, ANS 292d-294a; Q 60, A 1, REP 2-3 310b-311a; A 5 313b-314c; Q 75, A 1, REP 1 378b-379c; Q 76, A 5, REP 1 394c-396a; Q 83, A 1, REP 3 436d-438a; Q 84, A 4, REP 1 444d-446b; A 5 446c-447c; Q 89, A 1, REP 3 473b-475a; A 8, REP 2 479c-480c; QQ 90-92 480c-491d; Q 94, A 3, ANS 504a-505a; QQ 103-119 528a-608d esp QQ 103-105 528a-545b, Q 116 592d-595c; PART I-II, Q 1, A 2 610b-611b; A 4, ANS and REP 1 612a-613a; A 8 615a-c; Q 2, A 5, REP 3 618d-619c; Q 6, A 1, REP 3 644d-646a; Q 10, A 4, ANS and REP 1-2 665d-666a,c; Q 12, A 5, ANS 672a-c; Q 17, A 8, REP 2 692a-c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 85, A 6 182d-184a; Q 113, A 10 369c-370b; PART III SUPPL, Q 83, A 3 978c-980d; Q 91 1016a-1025b
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, HELL, XI [91-111] 16a-b; PARADISE, II [46-148] 108b-109b; VIII [91-148] 117d-118c; XIII [52-87] 126a-b; XXVII [97-120] 148b-c
22 CHAUCER: The Knight’s Tale [2987-3040] 209a-210a / The Tale of the Man of Law [488-492] 242b-243b / The Prioress’s Tale [13,572-599] 394b-395a / The Second Nun’s Tale [16,001-021] 471a-b
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 51d-52a; PART II, 149c-d; 160b-c; PART III, 183d-187a passim; 188a-191a; 241c-242a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 344a
26 SHAKESPEARE: 1st Henry IV, ACT III, SC I [1-63] 450a-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 390d-391a; 406b-407b; 416b-c; 426a-429b; 443a-c; 490d-493a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 2c-d; 4b-c / Novum Organum, BK I, APH 23 108c; APH 124 133c-d
31 DESCARTES: Discourse on the Method, PART V, 55d-56a / Meditations on First Philosophy, IV, 90a-b / Objections and Replies, 214d-215b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART I, PROP 16-18 362a-363c; PROP 24-29 365a-366c; PROP 33 367b-369a; APPENDIX 369b-372d; PART II, PROP 7 375a-c; PART IV, PREF 422b,d-424a
32 MILTON: Samson Agonistes [667-709] 354a-355a
33 PASCAL: Pensées, 77 186a; 619-641 284b-290a; 643-644 290b-291b; 803-856 328b-341b passim, esp 804 329a; 876 345a
34 NEWTON: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, BK III, GENERAL SCHOL, 369b-371a / Optics, BK III, 542a-543a
35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK IV, CH III, SECT 28-29 322a-323a; CH XVI, SECT 13 371a-b
35 BERKELEY: The Principles of Human Knowledge, SECT 25-33 417d-419a passim, esp SECT 29-33 418c-419a; SECT 36 419c-d; SECT 51-53 422d-423a; SECT 57 423d-424a; SECT 60-76 424b-428a passim, esp SECT 60-66 424b-426a; SECT 84 429b-c; SECT 92-94 431a-c; SECT 105-109 433b-434b passim; SECT 141, 441a; SECT 146-153 442a-444a passim, esp SECT 150 442d-443b
35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT VII, DIV 54-57 474b-475d; SECT X-XI 488d-503c passim
40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 189b-191a esp 190c-191a; 206b-d; 292d-296b esp 295c-d; 409a-b; 465d-467b
41 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 227d-228a
42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 143a-145c; 177b-179b; 187a-190a; 239a-240b / Critique of Practical Reason, 334b-335c / Critique of Judgement, 560d-562a,c; 567b; 572b-578a; 581a-582c; 588a-592d
44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 126b-c
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, PART I, 246b-c; PART III, 307a-b; PART IV, 338b-c; 361b-c
49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 239c-d; 243b-d
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 219b-d; EPILOGUE II, 675a-677b; 680b-c; 684b-d
52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK III, 21d-22b; BK VI, 168a-c; BK VII, 171a-177b passim

4. Knowledge of nature or the natural

4a. Nature or essence as an object of definition

7 PLATO: Cratylus, 104d-105b / Meno, 174a-179b / Euthyphro, 196a-b / Gorgias, 252d-253b / Theaetetus, 514b-515a / Sophist, 577c-d / Laws, BK X, 763c-d / Seventh Letter, 809c-810b
8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK II, CH 1-10 122b,d-128d; CH 13 131b-133c / Physics, BK II, CH 1 [193a30-b7] 269c-d; CH 2 [194a11-14] 270c; CH 9 [200a30-b10] 277d-278a,c / Meteorology, BK IV, CH 12 493d-494d / Metaphysics, BK II, CH 2 [994b16-27] 513a-b; BK III, CH 2 [996b18-b26] 514d-515b; BK VI, CH 1 [1025b28-1026a6] 547d-548a; BK VII, CH 4-6 552b-555a; CH 10-12 558a-562a; CH 15 563c-564c; BK VIII, CH 2-3 566d-568d; CH 6 569d-570d; BK XI, CH 7 [1064a19-28] 592c / On the Soul, BK I, CH 1 631a-632d; BK II, CH 1-3 642a-645b passim; BK III, CH 4 [429b10-23] 661d-662a; CH 6 [430a26-31] 663b-c
9 ARISTOTLE: On the Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [641a14-33] 163d-164b; CH 2-3 165d-167d
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 2, A 2, REP 2 11d-12c; Q 3, A 3, ANS 16a-d; A 5, ANS 17c-18b; Q 14, A 11, REP 1 84c-85c; Q 17, A 3 102d-103c; Q 29, A 1, REP 4 162a-163b; A 2, REP 3 163b-164b; Q 44, A 1, REP 1 238b-239a; Q 86, A 1 461c-462a; PART I-II, Q 1, A 3, ANS and REP 3 611b-612a; A 5, ANS 613a-614a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 4, A 1, ANS 402a-403d; PART III, Q 2, A 1, ANS 710a-711c; A 2, ANS 711d-712d
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 59d; PART IV, 270d-271a
31 DESCARTES: Rules for the Direction of the Mind, VI, 14b-c / Objections and Replies, 126b-127c; 160d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART I, DEF 4 355b; PROP 8, SCHOL 2 356d-357d; PROP 10 358a-b; PART II, DEF 2 373b
35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXIII, SECT 3-10 204c-206d esp SECT 6 205b-c; CH XXXI, SECT 6-13 240d-243b; CH XXXII, SECT 18 246c-247a; SECT 24 247c-d; BK III, CH III, SECT 12-20 257b-260a; CH VI 268b-283a; CH IX, SECT 11-17 287d-290a; CH X, SECT 17-21 295d-297b; BK IV, CH VI, SECT 4-16 331d-336d passim; CH XII, SECT 9 360d-361b
35 BERKELEY: The Principles of Human Knowledge, SECT 101-102 432c-433a
38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 341c-342b
53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 185a-b; 669a-671a

4b. Nature in relation to diverse types of science: the theoretic and the practical sciences; natural philosophy or science, mathematics, and metaphysics

7 PLATO: Timaeus, 447a-477a,c
8 ARISTOTLE: Prior Analytics, BK I, CH 13 [32b4-23] 48b-d / Topics, BK I, CH 14 [105b19-29] 149c / Physics, BK I, CH 2 [184b25-185a19] 259c-260a; CH 7 [191a8-11] 266d; CH 9 [192b33-193a2] 268c-d; BK II, CH 2 270a-271a; CH 9 [200a30-b9] 277d-278a,c; BK III, CH 1 [200b11-24] 278a; CH 5 [204a34-b3] 282b-c; BK IV, CH 1 [208a27-33] 287a; BK VIII, CH 1 [250b11-251a8] 334a-c; CH 3 [253b32-b6] 337c/ On the Heavens, BK I, CH 1 [268a1-7] 359a; CH 5 [271b1-18] 362c-d; BK III, CH 1 [298b24-299a17] 389b,d-390c; CH 7 [306a1-18] 397b-c / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 8 [989b21-990a8] 507d-508a; CH 9 [992a29-b9] 510c-d; BK III, CH 3 [995a15-20] 513d; BK VI, CH 1 547b,d-548c; BK VII, CH 11 [1037a10-21] 560d; BK XI, CH 3 [1061a29-b12] 589c-d; CH 4 589d-590a; CH 7 592b-593a / On the Soul, BK I, CH 1 [403a25-b19] 632b-d / On Sense and the Sensible, CH 1 [436b16-b2] 673b / On Youth and Old Age, On Life and Death, On Breathing, CH 27 [480b21-31] 726d
9 ARISTOTLE: On the Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 1 161a-165d esp [639b34-640a10] 162b; BK I, CH 5 [644b21]-BK II, CH 1 [646a13] 168c-170a
16 PTOLEMY: The Almagest, BK I, 5a-6a
18 AUGUSTINE: The City of God, BK VIII, CH 2 265b-266a; CH 4 266d-267c; CH 5-6, 268b-269c; BK XI, CH 25 336b-d / On Christian Doctrine, BK II, CH 29 650d-651c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 1, A 1, REP 2 3b-4a; Q 7, A 3, ANS 32c-33c; Q 14, A 16, ANS 90b-91b; Q 84, A 8, ANS 450b-451b; Q 85, A 1, REP 2 451c-453c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 84, A 1, REP 3 174b-175a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 71c-d; 72a-d; PART II, 163a; PART IV, 268c-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 331c-332a
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 33b-34b; 40a-c; 42a-c; 43a-d / Novum Organum, BK I, APH 3 107b; APH 66 114d-115c
31 DESCARTES: Discourse on the Method, PART V, 54c; 55b; PART VI, 61b-62c; 66d-67a / Meditations on First Philosophy, IV, 90a-b / Objections and Replies, 215a-b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART I, APPENDIX 369b-372d; PART II, PROP 7, SCHOL 375b-c; PART III, 395a-d; PART IV, PREF 422b,d-424a
34 NEWTON: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, BK III, RULE I-II 270a-271a
35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK III, CH VI 268b-283a passim, esp SECT 9 270d-271a; BK IV, CH VI, SECT 4-16 331d-336d passim; CH XII, SECT 7-13 360b-362d; CH XXI 394d-395a,c esp SECT 1-2 394d
35 BERKELEY: The Principles of Human Knowledge, SECT 30-32 418c-419a; SECT 58-66 424a-426a passim, esp SECT 59 424b, SECT 66 426a; SECT 101-109 432c-434b
35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT VIII, DIV 64, 478d-479a; DIV 65 479b-480a esp 479c
38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 341c-342b passim
39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK V, 335b-337a
42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 5a-13d esp 5d-9a; 15c-16c; 190c-191a / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 253a-d; 271a-c; 283d-284d / Critique of Practical Reason, 291a-292c; 297a-c; 300d [fn 1]; 307d-314d esp 310a-b; 329a-337a,c esp 329b-d / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 388a-d / Critique of Judgement, 461a-475d esp 463a-467a, 474b-475d; 578a-b; 596c-598b
43 MILL: On Representative Government, 327b,d-328b
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 1 115a-d / The Philosophy of History, PART II, 263d-265c; PART IV, 361a-c
50 MARX: Capital, 190d [fn 2]
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 694c-d
53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 862a-866a; 882a-886a

4c. Nature as an object of history

9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK I, CH 6 [491a5-26] 12c-13a
18 AUGUSTINE: On Christian Doctrine, BK II, CH 29 650d-651c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 71c-d; 72a-d
28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 338a-c; 383d; 473a-b
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 32d-34b
38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 333a-334a,c
43 MILL: On Representative Government, 328a-b
44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 20b-c
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156b-164d; 178a-179b; 190b-201a,c; PART I, 246b-c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, ixa-xxa; 221b-224b; 243b-249a; 267a-271a; 335a-341a
49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 152a-166a,c esp 165d-166a,c; 241d-243a
50 MARX: Capital, 181d [fn 3]
51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 688a

5. Nature or the natural as the standard of the right and the good

5a. Human nature in relation to the good for man

5 SOPHOCLES: Philoctetes [895-903] 190a
6 THUCYDIDES: The Peloponnesian War, BK I, 368a-d; BK IV, 461d-462a; BK V, 504c-507c
7 PLATO: Symposium, 155d-157a / Gorgias, 282b-284b / Republic, BK I, 309b-310b; BK IV, 350a-355c; BK VIII, 410a-c; BK IX, 421a-425b; BK X, 439b-441a,c / Timaeus, 474b-476b / Sophist, 557b-d / Philebus, 619d-620b
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [246b10-248a8] 329c-330d / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 1-2 499a-501c passim
9 ARISTOTLE: Nicomachean Ethics, BK I, CH 7 [1097a23-1098a17] 343a-c; CH 9 [1099b18-24] 345a-b; BK II, CH 1 348b,d-349b; BK III, CH 5 [1114b32-1115a25] 360c-d; BK V, CH 7 [1134b18-1135a4] 382c-d; BK VI, CH 13 394b-d; BK X, CH 7 431d-432c passim / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253a2-38] 446b-d; CH 5-6 447d-449b; BK III, CH 6 [1278b15-29] 475d-476a; BK VII, CH 3 [1325b2-13] 529c-d; CH 13 [1332a39-b10] 537a-b; CH 14 [1333a16-23] 538a
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK II [1-61] 15a-d; BK III [1053-1094] 43c-44a,c; BK V [1113-1135] 75c-d
12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 6 110c-112b; CH 11 116d-118d; CH 15 121c-d; BK III, CH 1-3 175a-180a; CH 10 185d-187a; BK IV, CH 6-7 230b-235a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 3 257a-b; SECT 9 257d; SECT 17 259b-d; BK III, SECT 2 259d-260a; SECT 9 261d; BK IV, SECT 23-24 265c-d; SECT 29 266a; SECT 32 266b-c; SECT 39 267a; SECT 48 267d-268a; SECT 51 268d; BK V, SECT 4 269a; SECT 8 269d-270b; SECT 15-16 271b-d; BK VI, SECT 9 274b; BK VII, SECT 20 281b; SECT 55 283b-c; BK VIII, SECT 1 285a-b; SECT 46 289b; BK IX, SECT 1 291a-c; SECT 9 292b-d; SECT 42 295c-296a,c; BK X, SECT 2-3 296b-d
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK III, PAR 15 17a-b / The City of God, BK XII, CH 3 343d-344b; BK XIII, CH 3 361a-c; BK XIV, CH 11-13 385d-388c; BK XIX, CH 1-4 507a-513c
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 63, A 9, REP 1-2 333b-d; Q 118, A 2, REP 5 601c-603b; PART I-II, QQ 1-5 609a-643d; Q 10, A 1 662d-663d
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 49, A 2, ANS and REP 1 2b-4a; Q 51, A 1, ANS 12b-13c; Q 54, A 3 24c-25b; Q 63, A 1 63a-64a; Q 71, A 2 106d-107c; Q 85 178b-184a; Q 91, A 2 208d-209d; Q 94 220d-226b; PART II-II, Q 182, A 1, ANS 620b-621d; Q 183, A 1 625a-626a
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, HELL, XI 15a-16b; PURGATORY, XVII [82]-XVIII [75] 79b-80c; PARADISE, VIII [115-148] 118b-c
24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 65c-d
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 60a-c; 71d-73a; 93b-94a; 216c-219a; 424d-426b; 502c-504c; 508a-512a; 520b-d; 528c-529b; 538a-543a,c
27 SHAKESPEARE: Troilus and Cressida, ACT IV, SC II [173-188] 115b-c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 70d-71b; 94d
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PREF, 423c; PROP 18, SCHOL-PROP 28 429a-431c; PART V, PROP 41-42 462d-463d
35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 90a-d; BK I, CH II, SECT 5 105a-b; SECT 13, 108b-c; BK II, CH XXI, SECT 52-53 191d-192b; SECT 55-56 192c-193b; CH XXVIII, SECT 11 230c-231a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 38c-39c; 82c-83b
38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 329a-366d / A Discourse on Political Economy 367a-385a,c passim / The Social Contract, BK II, 399b-c
42 KANT: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 253a-254d esp 253d-254d; 263d-264a; 270c-d; 280d-281a / Critique of Practical Reason, 327d-329a / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 387d-388a
43 MILL: On Liberty, 293b-302c passim / Utilitarianism, 448a-455a; 459b-464d passim; 464d-465c
44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 413a-b
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 196d-197a
49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 310a-319d esp 316a-318c; 592b-d
50 MARX: Capital, 301d [fn 3]
52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 127b-137c passim
54 FREUD: The Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis, 20c-d / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 623d-625b / Thoughts for the Times on War and Death, 758a-759d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 785c-789b esp 786d-787a; 800c-801c

5b. Natural inclinations and natural needs with respect to property and wealth

5 EURIPIDES: Helen [903-908] 306d-307a / The Phoenician Maidens [528-567] 382c-d
7 PLATO: Republic, BK I, 316c-319a; BK VIII, 409d-410c
8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK III, CH 2 [118b6-16] 164d-165a
9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 3-11 446d-453d; BK VII, CH 13 [1331b39-1332a27] 536c-537a
14 PLUTARCH: Marcus Cato, 285c-d
15 TACITUS: The Annals, BK II, 31a-b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 2, A 1, ANS and REP 3 615d-616c
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 94, A 5, REP 3 224d-225d
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, HELL, XI [91-111] 16a-b; XVII [34-75] 24b-c
22 CHAUCER: The Tale of Melibeus, PAR 49-51 422a-424a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 217c-d; 489b-490c
27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT II, SC IV [263-274] 261c
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, APPENDIX, XXVIII-XXIX 450a
35 LOCKE: Concerning Civil Government, CH V 30b-36a passim
38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK VII, 44a-d; BK XIX, 145b
38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 350c; 352a; 363a-366d / The Social Contract, BK I, 393d-394b
39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK I, 6d-8b; 27b-37b passim; 42a-50d; 63a-b; 70a-71d; BK III, 147c-148b; BK IV, 163c-164c; BK V, 383c-d
44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 124d-125c
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 128 137b-c / The Philosophy of History, PART II, 267a-b
50 MARX: Capital, 16d-17a; 71d-72c; 81b-c; 147d-148a; 251a-255a esp 253a-255a; 377b [fn 3]
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 787d-788a

5c. The naturalness of the state and political obligation

7 PLATO: Republic, BK II, 316c-319c
9 ARISTOTLE: Nicomachean Ethics, BK V, CH 7 [1134b18-1135a4] 382c-d / Politics, BK I, CH 2 445b-446d; CH 5-6 447d-449b; CH 8 [1256b20-26] 450c; BK III, CH 6 [1278b15-29] 475d-476a; CH 17 [1287b37-39] 486c; BK V, CH 9 [1309b14-1310a2] 511d-512b; BK VII, CH 3 [1325b2-13] 529c-d; CH 4 [1326a29-b2] 530b-c; CH 14 [1332b3-41] 537b-d
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 1 256b,d; BK IV, SECT 4 264a; SECT 29 266a; BK VI, SECT 14 274d-275a; BK VII, SECT 13 280c; BK VIII, SECT 34 288a-b; SECT 59 290d; BK IX, SECT 9 292b-d; SECT 23 293c; SECT 42 295c-296a,c; BK X, SECT 6 297a-b; BK XI, SECT 8 303a-b; BK XII, SECT 30 310a-b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 91, A 3 209d-210c; Q 95, A 2 227c-228c; A 4 229b-230c
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b; PART II, 100a-c; 101a-b; 113c; 164a,c; PART III, 165a; CONCLUSION, 282a; 283c
30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20c-d; 94d-95b
31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 35-37 433b-436a; APPENDIX, IX 448a; XII 448b
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK VI [171-188] 200a
35 LOCKE: Concerning Civil Government, CH II-IX 25d-54d passim, esp CH VII-VIII 42b-53c
38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK I, 1c-2d; 3b-c; BK VI, 39b
38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 329a-366d / A Discourse on Political Economy, 368d-369b / The Social Contract, BK I-II, 387b,d-400c; BK III, 419c-d; 423a-c passim; 424d
42 KANT: The Science of Right, 402c; 433c-434c; 435c-436b; 437c-d / Critique of Judgement, 586b-d
43 THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [1-15] 1a-b
43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 51, 163b-c
43 MILL: On Representative Government, 327b,d-328d / Utilitarianism, 459b-461c passim
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 280 94d-95a / The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 164b-c
54 FREUD: Civilization and Its Discontents, 780b-d

5d. The natural as providing a canon of beauty for production or judgment

7 PLATO: Republic, BK X, 427c-431b / Laws, BK II, 660a-661a
8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [246b10-19] 329c-330a
9 ARISTOTLE: On the Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 5 [645a4-26] 168d-169a / Politics, BK III, CH 11 [1281b10-15] 479b-c; BK V, CH 9 [1309b23-30] 512a; BK VIII, CH 5 [1340a23-28] 545d / Rhetoric, BK III, CH 2 [1404b2-26] 654c-655a / Poetics, CH 4 [1449a19-27] 683b; CH 7 685b-c; CH 24 [1459b31-1460a4] 695d-696a
12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 2 259d-260a
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 49, A 2, REP 1 2b-4a
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, X [22-96] 67c-68b esp [28-33] 67d; XI [10-72] 70b-71a
22 CHAUCER: The Physician’s Tale [11,941-972] 366b-367a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 93b-d; 151b
27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT III, SC II [1-40] 49a-b
29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 184a-187c; 189d-193a; PART II, 212d-215b
33 PASCAL: Pensées, 29 176a; 32 176a-b; 134 196a
40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 494d-495a,c
42 KANT: Critique of Judgement, 476a-479d esp 479a-d; 494c-495a,c; 495c-d; 502d-503b; 521b-524b esp 523c-d; 525a-527b; 546b-c; 557a-558b
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, PART II, 263d-265c
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 277a-b; 335b
49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 576b-577d
53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 186b

6. Nature in religion and theology

6a. The personification and worship of nature

OLD TESTAMENT: Deuteronomy, 4:16-19; 17:3 / II Kings, 23:4-5,11—(D) IV Kings, 23:4-5,11 / Jeremiah, 8:1-2; 10:2—(D) Jeremias, 8:1-2; 10:2 / Ezekiel, 8:16—(D) Ezechiel, 8:16 / Zephaniah, 1:4-5—(D) Sophonias, 1:4-5
APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 13:1-9; 15:18-19—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 13:1-9; 15:18-19
NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 1:23-25
6 HERODOTUS: The History, BK I, 31a-b; 48c
7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 116b-d
8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK XII, CH 8 [1074b1-14] 604d-605a
12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK I [1-43] 1a-d; BK II [581-660] 22b-23b; BK V [783-836] 71b-72a
18 AUGUSTINE: The City of God, BK IV, CH 8 192c-193b
27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT I, SC II [1-22] 247d-248a; SC IV [297-311] 253a-b; ACT III, SC II [1-25] 262d-263a
34 NEWTON: Optics, BK III, 543b-544a
40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 81d; 93b-c
42 KANT: Critique of Judgement, 504b-505a
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 196d-197c; PART I, 220c-221a; 228a-c; 244c-245a; 252a-255a; PART II, 263d-265c; 268b-271c; PART III, 291d-292a
47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [430-521] 12b-15a; [1064-1121] 26b-28a; [3217-3239] 79a-b; PART II [4679-4727] 116b-117b
48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 367a-372a
50 MARX: Capital, 35b-c
54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 876d-877b

6b. Nature and grace in human life

NEW TESTAMENT: John, 1:12-13; 3; 6:22-27 / Romans esp 8:1-17 / I Corinthians, 2-3; 12; 15:42-50 / II Corinthians, 4:15-16; 5:14-17; 7:1; 10:2-4; 12:7-9 / Galatians, 5:3-4,19-26 / Ephesians passim, esp 2:1-6, 4:17-24 / Colossians passim, esp 3:9-10 / James, 4:1-10 / II Peter, 1:3-4 / I John passim, esp 2:15-16, 3:1, 5:4-5
18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK V, PAR 16 31c-d; BK VII, PAR 27 51d-52c / The City of God, BK XV, CH 1-3 397b,d-399c; CH 22 416a-c; BK XVI, CH 26 438c-439a; CH 37 444b-445a; BK XVIII, CH 11 477c-d; BK XXI, CH 15 572c-573b
19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 1, A 8, REP 2 7c-8d; Q 2, A 2, REP 1 11d-12c; Q 8, A 3, ANS and REP 4 36b-37c; Q 12, A 2, ANS and REP 1 51c-52c; AA 12-13 60d-62b; Q 62 317c-325b; QQ 99-101 501c-523d; PART I-II, Q 4, A 5, REP 1 632c-634b
20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 51, A 4 15a-d; Q 63, A 4 65d-66c; Q 68 87c-96c; Q 79, A 3, ANS and REP 1 158a-d; QQ 109-114 338a-378a,c; PART II-II, Q 2, AA 3-4 392d-394b; PART III, Q 2, A 10 720c-721b; QQ 7-8 745c-763b; Q 10, A 4, REP 2 771b-772a; Q 62 858b-864c
21 DANTE: The Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XI [1-30] 68d-69a; XXX 99b-100d; PARADISE, VII [16-120] 115b-116b; XXX [40-87] 155a-c
22 CHAUCER: The Parson’s Tale, PAR 13 504b-505a; PAR 19, 508a
23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART III, 192c-193c; PART IV, 250c-251b; 253b-254a
25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 212a-215a; 267c-268a; 294a-b
31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 125c-126a
32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK I [1024-1033] 133b; BK II [56-415] 136b-144b esp [130-134] 138a, [227-238] 140b; BK XI [1-21] 299a-b; [251-262] 304b-305a / Samson Agonistes [356-372] 347b
33 PASCAL: The Provincial Letters, 29b; 147b; 155b / Pensées, 434 248a-250a; 520-525 263b-264a; 643-646 290b-291b; 670 295a-b; 675 296b-297a
37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 38d
42 KANT: Critique of Pure Reason, 238b
46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, PART IV, 354a
52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 127b-137c passim

CROSS-REFERENCES

For: Terms or discussions relevant to the conception of the nature of a thing as its essence, see BEING 8c-8e; DEFINITION 1a; FORM 2c(2), 3c; IDEA 4b(3); ONE AND MANY 3b-3b(1); SAME AND OTHER 3a-3a(1).
For: Terms or discussions relevant to the conception of nature as the totality of things or as the whole of sensible reality, see EXPERIENCE 1; GOD 11; ONE AND MANY 1b; WORLD 3-3b.
For: Other considerations of the distinction between nature and art, see ART 2a-2c, 9a; and for the distinction between the natural and the conventional in language, law, and justice, see CUSTOM AND CONVENTION 1; JUSTICE 6b, 10a; LANGUAGE 2a-2b; LAW 2, 4f; SIGN AND SYMBOL 1a-1f; SLAVERY 2, 3.
For: The distinction between the state of nature and the state of civil society, and for the problem of the naturalness of the family and the state, see FAMILY 1; LAW 4b; LIBERTY 1b; NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 5b-5d; STATE 1-1d, 3b-3c; WAR AND PEACE 1.
For: Another consideration of the distinction between nature and nurture, see HABIT 1, 3d.
For: Other treatments of natural and violent motion, see CHANGE 7b; MECHANICS 5e(2)-5f.
For: The distinction between the natural, the voluntary, and the free, see CAUSE 3; LIBERTY 4b; WILL 3a(1)-3a(2), 6c.
For: The distinction between the natural and the supernatural, see GOD 6b-6c(4), 10; HABIT 5e(1)-5e(3); HAPPINESS 7c; KNOWLEDGE 6c(5); RELIGION 6f; THEOLOGY 2; VIRTUE AND VICE 2b, 8d-8e; WISDOM 1d, 1c.
For: Discussions bearing on the rationality or order of nature, see MIND 10a; RELATION 5b; WORLD 6c; and for the special problem of continuity or hierarchy in the order of nature, see ANIMAL 1b-1c; EVOLUTION 4a, 4c; LIFE AND DEATH 2, 3a; MAN 1a, 1c; WORLD 6b.
For: The reign of causality and the uniformity of nature, see CAUSE 2a; FATE 5; NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 3c; WILL 5c; and for the problem of final causes in nature, see CAUSE 6.
For: Other considerations of divine causality in relation to the order of nature, see CAUSE 7b-7d; GOD 7c.
For: Nature in relation to the various sciences, see METAPHYSICS 2a, 3b; PHILOSOPHY 2a-2b; PHYSICS 1-1b; SCIENCE 3a; TRUTH 2c.
For: The nature of man as a standard in ethics, economics, and politics, see CITIZEN 8; DEMOCRACY 4b; DESIRE 3a; GOOD AND EVIL 3a; NECESSITY AND CONTINGENCY 5c; SLAVERY 2d, 3d; STATE 3b(1); WEALTH 10b.
For: The theological discussion of nature and grace in human life, see GOD 7d; HABIT 5e(1); HAPPINESS 7a; MAN 9b(1)-9b(2); SIN 3a, 3c, 7; VIRTUE AND VICE 8b.

ADDITIONAL READINGS

Listed below are works not included in Great Books of the Western World, but relevant to the idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:

I. Works by authors represented in this collection. II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.

For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.

EPICTETUS. The Manual
AUGUSTINE. On Nature and Grace
AQUINAS. Summa Contra Gentiles, BK III, CH 99-103
ROUSSEAU. Eloisa (La nouvelle Héloise)
KANT. Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysic, PAR 14
GOETHE. Zur Natur- und Wissenschaftslehre
HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, V, A (a)
J. S. MILL. A System of Logic, BK III, CH 12-14, 22, 24
—. “Nature,” in Three Essays on Religion
TOLSTOY. The Cossacks
ENGELS. Dialectics of Nature

II.

EPICURUS. Letter to Herodotus
ERIUGENA. De Divisione Naturae
MAIMONIDES. The Guide for the Perplexed, PART II, CH 17, 19-20
BRUNO. De la causa, principio, e uno
SUAREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, XXXIV, XLIII (4), XLVII (2)
BOYLE. A Free Inquiry into the Vulgarly Received Notion of Nature
LEIBNIZ. Philosophical Works, CH 4 (Extract from a Letter to Bayle)
J. BUTLER. The Analogy of Religion
VOLTAIRE. “Nature,” in A Philosophical Dictionary
—. The Ignorant Philosopher, CH 36
—. The Study of Nature
SCHELLING. Ideen zu einer Philosophie der Natur
CHATEAUBRIAND. René
WORDSWORTH. Tintern Abbey
—. Michael
—. The Prelude
SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL III, SUP, CH 23
EMERSON. Nature
WHEWELL. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, VOL I, BK X, CH 3
THOREAU. A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers
—. Walden
TYNDALL. The Belfast Address
LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK I, CH 1-2; BK IV, CH 1-3
—. Logic, BK II, CH 8
—. Metaphysics, BK I, CH 7-8
C. S. PEIRCE. Collected Papers, VOL VI, PAR 88-101, 395-427
NIETZSCHE. The Will to Power, BK III (2)
FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART I, CH 3-6; PART VII, CH 13
BRADLEY. Appearance and Reality, BK I, CH 11-12; BK II, CH 13-15, 22
WARD. Naturalism and Agnosticism
ROYCE. The World and the Individual, SERIES I (5)
C. READ. The Metaphysics of Nature
BERGSON. Creative Evolution, CH 3
B. RUSSELL. Philosophical Essays, CH 2
HENDERSON. The Order of Nature
DEWEY. “Nature and Its Good, A Conversation,” in The Influence of Darwin on Philosophy
—. Experience and Nature, CH 3-7, 9
BRIDGMAN. The Logic of Modern Physics, CH 4
EDDINGTON. The Nature of the Physical World, CH 13
LENZEN. The Nature of Physical Theory, PART II
LÉVY-BRUHL. Primitives and the Supernatural
SANTAYANA. Reason in Common Sense, CH 3-5
—. Scepticism and Animal Faith, CH 22
—. The Genteel Tradition at Bay, CH 2-3
MARITAIN. The Degrees of Knowledge, CH 3
LOVEJOY. The Great Chain of Being, CH 10
COLLINGWOOD. The Idea of Nature
PLANCK. “The Unity of the Physical Universe,” in A Survey of Physics
—. The Philosophy of Physics, CH 2
WHITEHEAD. The Concept of Nature, CH 1-2
—. Process and Reality, PART II, CH 3-4
—. Adventures of Ideas, CH 7-8
—. Modes of Thought, LECT VII-VIII
SHERRINGTON. Man on His Nature, III, XII
WOODBRIDGE. An Essay on Nature
KELSEN. Society and Nature
CASSIRER. Substance and Function, PART II, CH 6
—. The Myth of the State, PART I (9)
VON WEIZSÄCKER. The History of Nature

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