Chapter 51: MAN

INTRODUCTION

WHETHER or not the proper study of mankind is man, it is the only study in which the knower and the known are one, in which the object of the science is the nature of the scientist. If we consider every effort men have made in response to the ancient injunction “know thyself,” then psychology has perhaps a longer tradition than any other science. But by a stricter conception of science, more is required than individual insight or self-consciousness. Definitions, principles, analyses applicable to all men must be established, and it has been questioned whether the method of introspection suffices for this purpose. What methods should be used by the psychologist depends in part upon the precise object and scope of his inquiry. According as different subject matters and different methods define psychology, there seem to be several disciplines bearing that name, each with its own tradition in Western thought.

In one conception, psychology begins with the dialogues of Plato and with Aristotle’s treatise On the Soul. As Aristotle’s title indicates, and as the Greek roots of the word ‘psychology’ connote, the soul rather than man is the object of the science. Anthropology, Kant later suggests, would be a more appropriate name for the science of man. The Greek inquiry into the soul extends, beyond man, to all living things. It is because “the soul is in some sense the principle of animal life,” Aristotle writes, that “the knowledge of the soul admittedly contributes greatly to the advance of truth in general, and, above all, to our understanding of Nature.”

Nevertheless, psychology for the Greeks is principally concerned with the study of man. The analysis of the parts or faculties of the human soul is an analysis of the properties of human nature— the powers which man has and the characteristically human acts or functions he can perform. The methods by which this analysis is developed are, for the most part, the same methods which the Greek philosophers use in physics. “The study of the soul,” Aristotle writes, “falls within the science of Nature.” The definitions of the psychologist, like those of the physicist, give “a certain mode of movement of such and such a body (or part or faculty of a body) by this or that cause and for this or that end.” In the case of the human soul, however, the psychologist can employ a method not applicable to other things. The human intellect is able to examine itself. Mind can thus know things about mind which are not otherwise observable.

The subject matter of psychology narrows somewhat when, at a later moment in the tradition, the study of mind tends to replace the study of man. This narrowing takes place gradually. Though Descartes identifies soul with mind or intellect, he treats of the passions and the will as well as thought and knowledge. Differing from Descartes with regard to body and soul, Hobbes and Spinoza also give as much attention to the emotions as to ideas and reasoning. But with Locke, Berkeley, and Hume there is an increasing tendency to analyze the contents of consciousness and the acts of the understanding, treated exclusively as a faculty of thinking or knowing. Where in the earlier tradition the observation of human behavior and the behavior of other animals appears to be useful in psychology, here the main source of psychological knowledge seems to be introspection.

The Principles of Psychology by James and the writings of Freud represent a return to the broader conception of the science. According to James, “it is better… to let the science be as vague as its subject… if by so doing we can throw any light on the main business in hand.” If psychology “takes into account the fact that minds inhabit environments which act on them and on which they in turn react” and “takes mind in the midst of all its concrete relations, it is immensely more fertile than the old-fashioned ‘rational psychology,’ which treated the soul as a detached existent, sufficient unto itself, and assumed to consider only its nature and properties. I shall therefore feel free,” James goes on to say, “to make any sallies into zoology or into pure nerve-physiology which may seem instructive for our purposes.”

Though in the hands of James and Freud the scope of psychology extends no further than the range of topics Aquinas covers in his treatise on man and his treatise on human acts and passions, their return to the study of man as a whole is accompanied by an interest in or invention of new methods, experimental and clinical. “As a science,” Freud writes, “psychoanalysis is characterized by the methods with which it works, not by the subject matter with which it deals.” Those who distinguish between science and philosophy in terms of empirical research date the beginning of psychology from the inception of these new methods. They regard most psychological writings earlier than James and Freud as works of speculation or philosophy.

Controversy over the validity of conclusions in psychology sometimes turns on the conflicting claims of rival methods to be the only way of arriving at the truth; and sometimes, as with Kant, the issue of method seems to be subordinate to the issue of subject matter. Kant admits the possibility of an empirical psychology which would confine its inquiries to the phenomenal processes of thought and feeling, because with respect to such an object “we could call in aid observations on the play of our thoughts,” and thence derive “natural laws of the thinking self.” But, he goes on to say, “it could never be available for discovering those properties which do not belong to possible experience.”

What Kant calls “rational psychology” aims at what is for him impossible, namely, knowledge of the reality or substance of the soul itself. It is impossible, he says, to make “any dogmatical affirmation concerning an object of experience beyond the boundaries of experience.” Kant’s critique of rational psychology thus appears to be based on the same principles which underlie his critique of metaphysical assertions concerning God’s existence and the freedom of the will.

Those principles are in turn based on an elaborate theory of the human faculties, such as sense, understanding, and reason, and the role they play in the constitution of experience and knowledge. But Kant does not regard his own theory of the faculties as psychology. Writers like Locke and Hume, on the other hand, seem to make their psychology—certainly in its principal concern with how the content of the mind is acquired and formed—the basis for appraising the validity of all other knowledge. They do not question the validity of psychology itself. They seem to assume that self-knowledge has unique advantages over all other inquiries.

THESE ISSUES of the scope and validity of psychology are in one sense more relevant to the chapters on KNOWLEDGE, MIND, and SOUL than to this one. Their relevance here is limited by their connection with the main issues about the nature of man. Not merely the tradition of psychology, but the whole tradition of Western thought seems to divide on the question of man’s essence.

The question can be put in a number of ways. Is man a rational animal, and does that definition imply that only man has reason? Does it imply that man has free will, and that only man has free will? Like the question about the distinction between living and non-living things or the similar question about the difference between plants and animals, this question can also be asked in terms of the contrast between difference in kind and difference in degree. Does man differ essentially or in kind from other animals, or do all animals possess the same fundamental properties? Does man differ from the others only in the degree to which he possesses some of these shared qualities?

Some, like Darwin, think that “the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind. We have seen,” he writes, “that the senses and intuitions, the various emotions and faculties, such as love, memory, attention, curiosity, imitation, reason, etc., of which man boasts, may be found in an incipient, or even sometimes in a well-developed condition, in the lower animals. They are also capable of some inherited improvement, as we see in the domestic dog compared with the wolf or jackal. If it could be proved that certain high mental powers, such as the formation of general concepts, self-consciousness, etc., were absolutely peculiar to man, which seems extremely doubtful, it is not improbable that these qualities are merely the incidental results of other highly-advanced intellectual faculties; and these again mainly the result of the continued use of a perfect language.” Such a view clearly takes the position that man varies from other animals in the same way that one species of animal varies from another.

Those who take the opposite position do not always agree on the precise nature of the difference in kind. For the most part, they attribute rationality to man alone and use the word “brute” to signify that all other animals totally lack reason, no matter how acute their intelligence or the apparent sagacity of their instinctive reactions. Milton, for example, in common with many others, describes man as

… creature who not prone
And brute as other creatures, but endued
With sanctity of reason, might erect
His stature, and upright with front serene
Govern the rest, self-knowing, and from thence
Magnanimous to correspond with heaven.

Those who find a difference in kind between man and other animals also tend to think that human society and human language are essentially different from the beehive or the ant mound, from bird calls, jungle cries, or parroting, because they are the work or expression of reason. Unlike Darwin, some of them find in human speech not the cause of man’s apparent difference in kind from other animals, but the consequence of his real difference in kind—his distinctive rationality. The fact that man does certain things that no other animal does at all means to them that man possesses certain powers which no other animal shares to any degree, even the slightest. They would therefore interpret Darwin’s admission that an anthropoid ape could not fashion “a stone into a tool” or “follow a train of metaphysical reasoning, or solve a mathematical problem, or reflect on God, or admire a grand natural scene,” as an indication that the ape totally lacked human reason or intellect, however acute his animal intelligence. But the writers who agree that man is radically different from the brutes do not all agree in the account they give of human reason; nor do they all affirm free will as the natural accompaniment of rationality.

Locke, for example, begins his essay on Human Understanding with the remark that “the understanding… sets man above the rest of sensible beings.” Men and other animals alike have the powers of sense, memory, and imagination, but, he says, “brutes abstract not…. The power of abstracting is not at all in them.” This power of having “general ideas is that which puts a perfect distinction betwixt man and brutes, and is an excellency which the faculties of brutes do by no means attain to.” But Locke denies that man has free will in the sense of a free choice among alternatives. Rousseau, on the other hand, declares that “every animal has ideas… and it is only in degree that man differs, in this respect, from the brute…. It is not, therefore, so much the understanding that constitutes the specific difference between the man and the brute, as the human quality of free agency… and it is particularly in his consciousness of this liberty that the spirituality of his soul is displayed.”

James agrees with Locke that “it is probable that brutes neither attend to abstract characters nor have associations by similarity,” but it is the latter fact which James himself makes the principal distinction between man and brute. “We may,” he asserts, “consider it proven that the most elementary single difference between the human mind and that of brutes lies in this deficiency on the brute’s part to associate ideas by similarity.” James enumerates “other classical differentiae of man besides that of being the only reasoning animal.” Man has been called, he says, “the laughing animal” and “the talking animal,” but these distinctive traits, like human reasoning, James regards as “consequences of his unrivalled powers… to associate ideas by similarity.”

Reason and speech are for James the effects, where for Adam Smith they are the cause, of man’s peculiarly human attributes. “The propensity to truck, barter, and exchange one thing for another,” Smith writes, is “common to all men, and to be found in no other race of animals.” This seems to him to be a “necessary consequence of the faculties of reason and speech” which are peculiar to man. Hobbes, as we shall see presently, takes still another position, since he explains man’s reasoning power in terms of his faculty of speech, a faculty which is possessed by no other animal.

Despite all these variations in theory or explanation, writers like Locke, Rousseau, James, Smith, and perhaps Hobbes seem to agree that man and brute differ in kind. On that point they agree even with writers like Plato, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, Descartes, Spinoza, Kant, and Hegel who hold, as they most definitely do not, that man has a special faculty of mind, reason, or intellect. The contradictory position is, therefore, not to be found in the denial of some particular theory of reason, but rather in the denial that any faculty or attribute which man possesses warrants our calling him “rational” and other animals “brute.”

THE ISSUE is sharply drawn between these contradictory positions. Yet it is avoided by those who go no further than to see in human civilization certain distinctive features, such as the arts and sciences, or law, government, and religion. Mill, for example, discussing the sentiment of justice, finds its root in the natural impulse “to resent, and to repel or retaliate, any harm done or attempted against ourselves, or against those with whom we sympathise… common to all animal nature.” Man differs from other animals, he writes, “first, in being capable of sympathising, not solely with their offspring, or, like some of the more noble animals, with some superior animal who is kind to them, but with all human and even with all sentient beings. Secondly, in having a more developed intelligence, which gives a wider range to the whole of their sentiments, whether self-regarding or sympathetic. By virtue of his superior intelligence, even apart from his superior range of sympathy, a human being is capable of apprehending a community of interest between himself and the human society of which he forms a part.”

A view of this sort would seem to leave open the question whether such typically human developments signify the possession by man of special powers which set him apart as different in kind. While admitting extraordinary differences between the behavior or accomplishments of men and other animals, this view does not reject the possibility that such accomplishments may represent merely wide differences in degree of power, which give the appearance of differences in kind.

As we have already observed, the issue about man and brute cannot be separated from the controversy about the so-called “higher faculties” of man. Except for the view that man is a purely spiritual being, who merely inhabits or uses a physical body, no theory of human nature doubts that man, as a living organism, possesses in common with plants and animals certain bodily powers or functions. The vegetative functions which Galen calls “the natural faculties” are indispensable to human as to all other forms of corporeal life. Similarly, the powers of sensitivity and appetite or desire are obviously present in man as in other animals. To the observer, who sees only the externals of human and animal behavior, men and the higher animals appear to react to the physical stimulation of their sense organs with a similar repertoire of bodily movements, which vary only as their skeletal structure and their organs of locomotion differ. They also manifest outward signs of inner emotional disturbance sufficiently similar to warrant treating emotions like fear and rage as common to men and other animals.

On all this there seems to be little dispute in the tradition of the great books. But difficult questions arise when the inner significance of these external movements is considered. Both men and animals have the familiar sense organs and such powers as touch, taste, smell, hearing, and vision. But do sensations give rise to knowledge in the same way for both men and animals? Do the powers of memory and imagination extend an animal’s range of apprehension as they do man’s? Do these powers affect the perception of present objects in the same way for men and animals?

Such questions are not readily answered by observation of external behavior alone. What seems to be called for—a comparison of human and animal experience—cannot be obtained. The difficulty of the problem becomes most intense when a special faculty of knowledge or thought is attributed to man, for animal and human sense perception, imagination, or even emotion may be incommensurable if a special factor of understanding or reason enters into all human experience and is totally absent from that of animals.

In the ancient and mediaeval periods, the sensitive faculty, including the interior sensitive powers of memory and imagination, is generally distinguished from another faculty, variously called “intellect,” “reason,” or “mind.” Writers like Plato, Aristotle, Plotinus, Lucretius, Augustine, and Aquinas have different conceptions of intellect or mind, in itself and in its relation to sense and imagination, but they do not question its existence as a separate faculty. The range of the sensitive powers does not extend to ideas or intelligible objects, nor is sensitive memory or imagination for them the same as rational thought.

Not only does it seem unquestionable in the ancient and mediaeval tradition that man has these two distinct faculties of knowledge, but it is generally assumed that other animals have, to a greater or less degree, the power of the senses alone. Only men can understand as well as perceive; only men can know the universal as well as the particular; only men can think about objects which are neither sensible nor, strictly, imaginable—objects such as atoms and God, the infinite and the eternal, or the intellect itself. The affirmation of an essential difference between reason and sense seems to be inseparable from the affirmation of an essential difference between men and brutes.

DOUBTS OR DENIALS with regard to both affirmations achieve considerable prevalence in modern times. But though the two affirmations appear inseparable, they are not always denied together. Montaigne, for example, does not so much doubt that men have reason as he does that other animals lack it. He considers the matter in the light of external evidences, in terms of the comparable performances of men and animals. The light of reason seems to shine in both.

He repeats many stories from Plutarch and Pliny which supposedly reveal the comparable mentality of animals and men. One is the story of the hound who, following the scent, comes to a triple parting of the ways. After sniffing along the first and second paths and discovering no trace of the scent, the hound, without a moment’s hesitation or sniffing, takes up the pursuit along the third trail. This, Montaigne suggests, is a kind of syllogizing; as if the dog reasoned thus with himself: “I have followed my master by foot to this place; he must, of necessity, be gone by one of these three ways; he is not gone this way nor that; he must then infallibly be gone this other.”

It is noteworthy that Aquinas tells exactly the same story in order to make the point that such appearances of reasoning in animals can be explained as instinctively determined conduct. “In the works of irrational animals,” he writes, “we notice certain marks of sagacity, in so far as they have a natural inclination to set about their actions in a most orderly manner through being ordained by the supreme art. For which reason, too, certain animals are called prudent or sagacious; and not because they reason or exercise any choice about things.” That such behavior is not the work of reason, he claims, “is clear from the fact that all that share in one nature invariably act in the same way.”

Unlike Montaigne, Machiavelli seems to imply that men and brutes are alike not in having reason, but in lacking it. The passions control behavior. Intelligence exhibits itself largely as craft or cunning in gaining ends set by the passions. Man is no less the brute in essence because in the jungle of society he often succeeds by cunning rather than by force. He may have more cunning than the fox, but without armor he also has less strength than the lion. The prince, Machiavelli remarks, “being compelled knowingly to adopt the beast, ought to choose the lion and the fox, because the lion cannot defend himself against snares and the fox cannot defend himself against wolves.”

For the most part, however, the modern dissent from the ancient and mediaeval view takes the form of denying that reason and sense are distinct powers. In its most characteristic expression, this denial is accompanied by a denial of abstract ideas as in the writings of Hobbes, Berkeley, and Hume. Their position, discussed more fully in the chapter on UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR, is that men only give the appearance of having abstract or general ideas because they employ common names which have general significance.

Language, according to Hobbes, is the root of all other differences between man and brute. Sense and imagination are “common to man and beast.” Reasoning, or the “train of thoughts,” can take place in any animal which has memory and imagination. But that type of understanding which Hobbes describes as “conception caused by speech” is peculiar to man. His statement that “by the help of speech and method, the same faculties” which belong to both men and beasts “may be improved to such a height as to distinguish men from all other living creatures,” would seem to imply that Hobbes regards man as superior to other animals only in degree. Yet, on the other hand, he enumerates a variety of institutions peculiar to human life, such as religion, law, and science, which imply a difference in kind.

Like Hobbes, Berkeley thinks that men use general names but do not have general or abstract ideas. But he seems much less willing than Hobbes to assert man’s clear superiority, even on the basis of man’s attainments through the power of speech. If the fact that “brutes abstract not,” he says in reply to Locke, “be made the distinguishing property of that sort of animals, I fear a great many of those that pass for men must be reckoned into their number.” Hume goes further than either Berkeley or Hobbes. Agreeing with them that man has no faculty above sense and imagination, and hence no faculty which animals do not also possess, he alone explicitly draws the conclusion which that implies.

“Animals as well as men,” he writes, “learn many things from experience and infer that the same events will always follow from the same causes.” Such inferences, in animals or men, are not “founded on any process of argument or reasoning.” They are the result of the operation of custom and instinct. “Were this doubtful with regard to men, it seems to admit of no question with regard to the brute creation; and the conclusion being once firmly established in the one, we have a strong presumption, from all the rules of analogy, that it ought to be universally admitted, without any exception or reserve.”

But if custom and instinct underlie the appearance of reasoning in both men and animals, it may be asked, says Hume, “how it happens that men so much surpass animals in reasoning, and one man so much surpasses another?” His answer seems to be entirely in terms of degree of the same factors. The same sort of difference which obtains between a superior and an inferior intelligence among men obtains between men and other animals.

All the evidence which Darwin later assembles on the characteristics of human mentality is offered by him in proof of the same point. But to those who think that man alone has an intellect or a rational faculty, over and above all his sensitive powers, such evidence remains inconclusive. As in the case of the dog, whose behavior Aquinas and Montaigne interpret differently, the same observed facts seem to be capable of quite opposite explanation by those who hold opposite theories of human and animal intelligence.

IS THERE INTERNAL evidence, obtained from man’s introspective experience of his own thought, which can resolve the controversy? As Descartes sees it, the interpretation of such evidence also seems to depend on the prior assumption one makes about the sameness or difference of men and brutes.

“We cannot help at every moment experiencing within us that we think,” he writes; “nor can anyone infer from the fact that it has been shown that the animate brutes can discharge all these operations entirely without thought, that he therefore does not think; unless it be that having previously persuaded himself that his actions are entirely like those of the brutes, just because he has ascribed thought to them, he were to adhere so pertinaciously to these very words, ‘men and brutes operate in the same way,’ that when it was shown to him that the brutes did not think, he preferred to divest himself of that thought of his of which he could not fail to have an inner consciousness, rather than to alter his opinion that he acted in the same way as the brutes.”

On the other hand, Descartes continues, those who hold “that thought is not to be distinguished from bodily motion, will with much better reason conclude that it is the same thing in us and in them, since they notice in them all corporeal movements as in us; they will add that a difference merely of greater and less makes no difference to the essence, and will infer that, though perchance they think that there is less reason in the beasts than in us, our minds are of exactly the same species.”

THE ISSUE concerning the senses and the reason is more fully discussed in the chapters on MIND and SENSE, and also in the chapters on IDEA and UNIVERSAL AND PARTICULAR, where the problem of abstract ideas or universal notions is considered. The issue concerning soul in general and the human soul in particular belongs primarily to the chapter on SOUL, and also to the chapter on MIND. But like the issue about sense and intellect, its bearing on the problem of man’s nature deserves brief comment here.

The question is not whether man has a soul, but whether only man has a soul; a rational soul; a soul which is, in whole or in part, immaterial; a soul capable of separate existence from the body; an immortal soul. If soul is conceived as the principle of life in all living organisms—as Aristotle conceives it—then having a soul does not distinguish man from plants or animals. If, furthermore, the rational soul is distinguished from the sensitive and vegetative soul in the same way that men are distinguished from brute animals and plants, namely, by reference to certain powers, such as intellect and will, then the statement that men alone have rational souls would seem to add nothing to the statement that men alone are rational.

But if the human soul, through being rational, confers a mode of immaterial, or spiritual, being upon man, then man’s possession of such a soul sets him apart from all other physical things, even further than the special power of reason separates him from the brutes. The position of Lucretius illustrates this distinction in reverse. He does not deny that man has a soul. Unlike other living things which also have souls, man’s soul includes a special part which Lucretius calls “mind.” He describes it as the part “which we often call the understanding, in which dwells the directing and governing principle of life, [and] is no less part of the man than hand and foot and eyes are parts of the whole living creature.”

So far as his having this special faculty is concerned, man is set apart. But for Lucretius nothing exists except atoms and void. Consequently, “the nature of the mind and soul is bodily,” consisting of “seeds exceedingly round and exceedingly minute, in order to be stirred and set in motion by a small moving power.” In his physical constitution man does not differ in any fundamental respect from any other composite thing. The materiality of his soul, furthermore, means that it is as perishable as any composite body.

At the other extreme from Lucretius, Descartes conceives man as a union of two substances. “I possess a body,” he writes, “with which I am very intimately conjoined, yet because, on the one side, I have a clear and distinct idea of myself inasmuch as I am only a thinking and unextended thing, and as, on the other, I possess a distinct idea of body as it is only an extended and unthinking thing, it is certain that this I (that is to say, my soul by which I am what I am), is entirely and absolutely distinct from my body and can exist without it.” Nevertheless, “sensations of pain, hunger, thirst, etc.” lead Descartes to add: “I am not only lodged in my body as a pilot in a vessel, but… I am very closely united to it, and so to speak so intermingled with it that I seem to compose with it one whole.”

Only man has a dual nature, thus compounded. Other living things, Descartes seems to hold, are merely bodies, having the structure and operation of complex machines. If, like the “automata or moving machines… made by the industry of man,” there were “such machines, possessing the organs and outward form of a monkey, or some other animal without reason, we should not have… any means of ascertaining that they were not of the same nature as those animals.”

It is indifferent to Descartes whether other animals are conceived as automata or whether, because they have life, sensation, and imagination, they are granted souls. “I have neither denied to the brutes,” he writes, “what is vulgarly called life, nor a corporeal soul, or organic sense.” What he has denied is thought, and it is this one factor which makes it impossible for a machine to imitate human speech and action. It is this one factor which also requires man’s soul, unlike that of the brute, to be an incorporeal substance.

Unlike sensations and passions, acts of thought and will, according to Descartes, cannot be functions of bodily organs. “Even though I were to grant,” he says, “that thought existed” in dogs and apes, “it would in nowise follow that the human mind was not to be distinguished from the body, but on the contrary rather that in other animals also there was a mind distinct from their body.” When Descartes affirms man’s uniqueness, he is therefore affirming more than that man alone has reason and free will. He is affirming that of all things man alone is “formed of body and soul”—not a corporeal soul, but a spiritual substance. The angels, in contrast, are simply spirits.

The remark of Plotinus, that “humanity is poised midway between the gods and the beasts,” applies with somewhat altered significance to the Cartesian view. But there are other conceptions of the human constitution which, though they preserve the sense of man’s dual nature, do not make him a union of two separate substances.

Spinoza, for example, gives man special status in the order of nature by conferring on him alone participation in the divine mind. “The human mind,” he writes, “is a part of the infinite intellect of God.” The human body, on the other hand, is “a mode which expresses in a certain and determinate manner the essence of God in so far as He is considered as the thing extended.” Man is thus “composed of mind and body,” but for Spinoza this duality in human nature is a duality of aspects, not a duality of substances.

There is still another way in which a certain immateriality is attributed to man. In Aristotle’s theory, the soul is not a substance in its own right, but the substantial form of an organic body. This is true of all kinds of souls—whether of plants, animals, or men. But when Aristotle enumerates the various powers which living things possess—such as “the nutritive, the appetitive, the sensory, the locomotive, and the power of thinking”—he assigns to man alone, or “possibly another order like man or superior to him, the power of thinking, i.e., mind.” Furthermore, of all the parts or powers of the soul, thinking seems to Aristotle to afford “the most probable exception” to the rule that “all the affections of soul involve body.”

Apart from thinking, “there seems to be no case,” he says, “in which the soul can act or be acted upon without involving body.” Whereas the sensitive powers are seated in bodily organs and cannot act except as bodily functions, the intellect is immaterial. It has no bodily organ which is comparable to the eye as the organ of vision and the brain as the organ of memory and imagination. The act of understanding is not a function of physical matter.

According to this theory, man as a whole is a single substance, composite of correlative principles of being—matter and form, or body and soul. But man differs from all other physical substances which are similarly composite in that he has a faculty and mode of activity separate from matter. In the later development of this theory by Aquinas, the immateriality of the intellect becomes the basis for arguing that the rational soul of man can exist apart from matter when the composite human substance is disintegrated by death.

As indicated in the chapters on IMMORTALITY and SOUL, this is not the only argument for the immortality of the soul. We are not here concerned, however, with the various arguments and their merits, but only with the fact that certain conceptions of man’s constitution attribute to man something more than the power of rationality, namely, the distinction of having a spiritual and immortal life.

HIS FUTURE AND his past color the present life of man and alter the aspect under which he conceives his place in the general scheme of things. Immortality promises release from mutability as well as salvation from death. With an immortal soul, man belongs to eternity as well as to time. He is not merely a transient character in the universe. His stature and his dignity are not the same when man regards himself as completely dissolvable into dust.

The question of man’s past or origin is, perhaps, even more critical in its bearing on man’s present status. Ancient poetry and history contain many myths of man’s kinship with the gods. The heroes trace their lineage back to the gods. Through them or through the progenitors of the race, man conceives himself as of divine descent or, at least, as having more affinity with the immortal gods than with all other earth-bound things.

In The Descent of Man, Darwin paints a different picture of human origin. Two propositions determine its general outlines. The first, already stated, is that man belongs to the animal kingdom without any differentiation except in degree. Not only in anatomy, physiology, and embryology are there marks of man’s affinity with the mammals; man’s behavior and mentality also show, according to Darwin, that man possesses no attribute so peculiarly human that some trace of it cannot be found in the higher forms of animal life.

The second proposition is that man’s origin on earth has come about by a process of natural variation from an ancestral type, exactly as other new species of plants or animals have originated by descent with variation from a common ancestor. This theory of the origin of species is discussed in the chapter on EVOLUTION. Its special application to the human species involves the notion of a common ancestor for both man and the anthropoid apes, and the disappearance not only of the ancestral form, but of the intermediate varieties—the so-called “missing links” in the chain of variation.

These two propositions are logically interdependent. If the proposition is false that man differs from other animals only in degree, the proposition cannot be true that man originated along with the anthropoid apes by descent from a common ancestor. Conversely, if the Darwinian theory of man’s origin is true, it cannot be true that men and brutes differ in kind. But though the truth of each of these two propositions implies the truth of the other, the problem of the difference between man and other animals has a certain logical priority over the problem of man’s origin, simply because more evidence is available to solve it. That question calls for an examination of man as he is today in comparison with other extant species; whereas the other question necessarily requires the collection and interpretation of historical evidence, which may have some bearing on hypothetical missing links.

It should be added that if, in regard to the first question, the evidence favored the affirmation of a difference in kind, that would not entail the denial of biological evolution, though it would necessarily challenge the Darwinian theory of how such evolution took place. One alternative to the Darwinian hypothesis is the theory of emergent evolution, according to which lower forms of life may give rise to new organic forms which are not only higher but are distinct in kind.

Whether or not Christian theology and some theory of biological evolution can be reconciled, there seems to be an inescapable contradiction between Darwin’s view of man’s origin and the Judaeo-Christian conception of man as a special creation, special above all in the sense that “God created man in his own image.”

As God is in essence a perfect intelligence and a spiritual being, man, according to Aquinas, “is said to be to the image of God by reason of his intellectual nature.” In all creatures “there is some kind of likeness to God,” but it is only in man that that likeness is an image. Man’s finitude, imperfection, and corporeal existence make the image a remote resemblance; yet, according to the theologians, it is precisely that likeness which separates man from all other earthly creatures and places him in the company of the angels.

But man is no more an angel than he is a brute. He is separated from the one by his body as from the other by his reason. Nor does he in the present life have the spiritual existence of a disembodied and immortal soul. To these three negatives in the definition of man—not an angel, not a brute, not a soul—the Christian theologian adds a fourth, drawn from man’s past. Man is of the race begotten by Adam, but he does not have the attributes which Adam possessed before the fall.

The dogma of man’s fall from grace is discussed in the chapter on SIN. Here we are concerned only with its implications for the understanding of man’s present nature, as not only being deprived of the extraordinary gifts of life and knowledge which Adam lost through disobedience, but as also being wounded in perpetuity by Adam’s sin. Weakness, ignorance, malice, and concupiscence, Aquinas declares, “are the four wounds inflicted on the whole of human nature as a result of our first parent’s sin.” Man in the world is not only disinherited from Adam’s gifts, but with the loss of grace, he also suffers, according to Aquinas, a diminution in “his natural inclination to virtue.”

THERE ARE OTHER divisions in the realm of man, but none so radical as that between Eden and the world thereafter. As retold by Plato, the ancient myths of a golden age when men lived under the immediate benevolence of the gods also imply a condition of mankind quite different from the observable reality, but they do not imply a decline in human nature itself with the transition from the golden age to the present. The modern distinction between man living in a state of nature and man living in civil society considers only the external circumstances of human life and does not divide man according to two conditions of his soul. Other dichotomies—such as that between prehistoric and historic man, or between primitive and civilized man—are even less radical, for they deal even more in gradations or degrees of the same external conditions.

These considerations lead us to another phase of man’s thinking about man. Where the previous problem was how man differs from everything else in the universe, here the question is how man is divided from man. If men are not equal as individuals, to what extent are their individual differences the result of the unequal endowment of the natures with which they are born, and to what extent are they the result of individual acquirement in the course of life?

The range of human differences, whether innate or acquired, may itself become the basis for a division of men into the normal and the abnormal, a division which separates the feeble-minded and the insane from the competent and sane. From a moral and political point of view, this is perhaps the most fundamental of all classifications. It must be admitted, however, that traditionally the problem of the difference between men and women and the problem of the difference between the ages of man from the extreme of infancy to the extreme of senility seem to have exercised more influence on the determination of political status and moral responsibility.

One other differentiation of man from man seems to have significance for the theory of human society and the history of civilization. That is the division of men into groups, sometimes by reference to physical and mental traits which separate one race from another—whether these traits are supposed to be determined biologically as inheritable racial characteristics or are attributed to environmental influences; sometimes by reference to the customs and ideals of a culture. Both sets of criteria appear to be used in the traditional discussion of the opposition between Greek and barbarian, Jew and gentile, European and Asiatic.

THE ULTIMATE questions which man asks about himself are partly answered by the very fact of their being asked. The answer may be that man is the measure of all things; that he is sufficient unto himself or at least sufficient for the station he occupies and the part he plays in the structure of the universe. The answer may be that man is not a god overlooking the rest of nature, or even at home in the environment of time and space, but rather that he is a finite and dependent creature aware of his insufficiency, a lonely wanderer seeking something greater than himself and this whole world. Whatever answer is given, man’s asking what sort of thing he is, whence he comes, and whither he is destined symbolizes the two strains in human nature—man’s knowledge and his ignorance, man’s greatness and his misery.

Man, writes Pascal, is “a nothing in comparison with the Infinite, an All in comparison with the Nothing, a mean between nothing and everything. Since he is infinitely removed from comprehending the extremes, the end of things and their beginning are hopelessly hidden from him in an impenetrable secret; he is equally incapable of seeing the Nothing from which he was made, and the Infinite in which he is swallowed up.”

“Man,” Pascal goes on, “must not think that he is on a level either with the brutes or with the angels, nor must he be ignorant of both sides of his nature; but he must know both.” In recognizing both lies his wretchedness and grandeur. “Man knows that he is wretched. He is therefore wretched, because he is so; but he is really greater because he knows it.”

OUTLINE OF TOPICS

1. Definitions of man: conceptions of the properties and qualities of human nature 1a. The conception of man as essentially distinct, or differing in kind, from brute animals: man’s specific rationality and freedom 1b. The conception of man as distinguished from brutes by such powers or properties as abstraction or relational thought, language and law, art and science 1c. The conception of man as an animal, differing only in degree of intelligence and of other qualities possessed by other animals

2. Man’s knowledge of man 2a. Immediate self-consciousness: man’s intimate or introspective knowledge of himself 2b. The sciences of human nature: anthropology and psychology; rational and empirical psychology; experimental and clinical psychology (1) The subject matter and scope of the science of man (2) The methods and validity of psychology (3) The relation of psychology to physiology: the study of organic factors in human behavior (4) The place of psychology in the order of sciences: the study of man as prerequisite for other studies

3. The constitution of man 3a. Man as a unity or conjunction of matter and spirit, body and soul, extension and thought (1) Man as a pure spirit: a soul or mind using a body (2) Man’s spirituality as limited to his immaterial powers or functions, such as reason and will 3b. Comparisons of man with God or the gods, or with angels or spiritual substances 3c. Man as an organization of matter or as a collocation of atoms

4. The analysis of human nature into its faculties, powers, or functions: the id, ego, and super-ego in the structure of the psyche 4a. Man’s vegetative powers: comparison with similar functions in plants and animals 4b. Man’s sensitive and appetitive powers: comparison with similar functions in other animals 4c. Man’s rational powers: the problem of similar powers in other animals 4d. The general theory of faculties: the critique of faculty psychology

5. The order and harmony of man’s powers and functions: contradictions in human nature; the higher and lower nature of man 5a. Cooperation or conflict among man’s powers 5b. Abnormalities due to defect or conflict of powers: feeble-mindedness, neuroses, insanity, madness

6. Individual differences among men 6a. The cause and range of human inequalities: differences in ability, inclination, temperament, habit 6b. The differences between men and women: their equality or inequality 6c. The ages of man: infancy, youth, maturity, senescence

7. Group variations in human type: racial differences 7a. Biological aspects of racial type 7b. The influence of environmental factors on human characteristics: climate and geography as determinants of racial or national differences 7c. Cultural differences among men: Greek and barbarian, Jew and gentile, European and Asiatic

8. The origin or genealogy of man 8a. The race of men as descendants or products of the gods 8b. God’s special creation of man 8c. Man as a natural variation from other forms of animal life

9. The two conditions of man 9a. The myth of a golden age: the age of Kronos and the age of Zeus 9b. The Christian doctrine of Eden and of the history of man in the world (1) The condition of man in Eden: the preternatural powers of Adam (2) The condition of man in the world: fallen man; corrupted or wounded human nature (3) The Christian view of the stages of human life in the world: law and grace 9c. Secular conceptions of the stages of human life: man in a state of nature and in society; prehistoric and historic man; primitive and civilized man

10. Man’s conception of himself and his place in the world 10a. Man’s understanding of his relation to the gods or God 10b. Man as the measure of all things 10c. Man as an integral part of the universe: his station in the cosmos 10d. The finiteness and insufficiency of man: his sense of being dependent and ordered to something beyond himself 10e. Man’s comparison of himself with other creatures and with the universe as a whole

11. The theological conception of man 11a. Man as made in the image of God 11b. The fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of man 11c. God incarnate in human form: the human nature of Christ

12. Man as an object of laughter and ridicule: comedy and satire

13. The grandeur and misery of man

REFERENCES

To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 Homer: Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d, the number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the passage is in section d of page 12.

Page Sections: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 James: Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of the page. For example, in 7 Plato: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.

Author’s Divisions: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH, SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in certain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK II [265-283] 12d.

Bible References: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTAMENT: Nehemiah, 7:45—(D) II Esdras, 7:46.

Symbols: The abbreviation “esp” calls the reader’s attention to one or more especially relevant parts of a whole reference; “passim” signifies that the topic is discussed intermittently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.

For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.

1. Definitions of man: conceptions of the properties and qualities of human nature

• OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:20-30 / Psalms, 8:5-9
• 5 SOPHOCLES: Antigone [332-375] 134a-b; [683-684] 137a
• 5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [195-213] 260a-b
• 6 THUCYDIDES: The Peloponnesian War, BK I, 368b-c; BK IV, 461d-462a; BK V, 506b-c
• 7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 116c-d / Symposium, 157b-159b / Gorgias, 270d / Republic, BK IX, 425c-427b / Timaeus, 452c-454a; 466a-467d / Critias, 485b-c / Laws, BK I, 649d-650b; BK IV, 685a-c; BK V, 686d-687c; BK VI, 704a-b; BK VII, 715b; 723c-d
• 8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK V, CH 1 [128b15-16] 178b; CH 3 [132a1-9] 182d; [132a17-22] 183a; CH 4 [133a15-23] 184b; [133a28-33] 184c; [133b8-13] 184d; CH 5 [134a8-17] 185b-c; CH 7 [136b19-22] 188d; BK VI, CH 3 [140a32-37] 193c / On the Heavens, BK I, CH 12 [292b1-11] 384a / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 1 [980a22-981b27] 499a-d / On the Soul, BK II, CH 3 [414b17-20] 644d; [415a7-12] 645b; BK III, CH 3 [427a7-14] 659d-660a; [428a20-24] 660c; CH 10 [433a8-13] 665d / On Memory and Reminiscence, CH 2 [453a5-14] 695b
• 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [488b6-10] 9a; [488b27] 9b; [488b20-27] 9d; CH 11 [492a31] 14b; CH 16 [494b28] 17a; BK II, CH 1 [497b32-498a4] 20b; BK III, CH 11 [517b27] 42b; CH 19 [521a3] 45d; CH 22 [523a14-15] 48c; BK IV, CH 9 [536b1-8] 63a-b; BK VIII, CH 1 [588a18-b4] 114b,d; BK IX, CH 1 [608a10-b19] 133b,d-134a / Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [641b5-8] 164b-c; BK II, CH 7 [653a29-b2] 178c-d; CH 10 [656a4-13] 182a-b; CH 14 [658a15-27] 184d-185a; [658b2-8] 185b; CH 16 [659b28]-CH 17 [660a3] 186d-187c; BK III, CH 1 [662b21-22] 190a; CH 6 [669a18-20] 197c; [669b4-5] 197d-198a; CH 10 [673a4-10] 201d-202a; [673a28] 202b; BK IV, CH 10 [686a25-687b5] 217d-219a; [689b11-12] 221c; [690a28-30] 222b / Gait of Animals, CH 4 [706a19-25] 244d-245a; CH 5 [706b8-10] 245b / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 20 [728b14-21] 268d; BK II, CH 6 [744a27-31] 285c; [745b16-19] 286d; BK IV, CH 4 [772b1-8] 314b-c; CH 8 [776b23-27] 318d-319a; BK V, CH 2 [781b17-23] 323d-324a; CH 7 [786b15-22] 328c-d / Nicomachean Ethics, BK I, CH 7 [1097b7-11] 342d-343a; [1097b23-1098a7] 343a-b; CH 13 [1102a27-1103a3] 347d-348c; BK III, CH 2 [1111b6-12] 357b-c; BK VII, CH 1 [1145a15-33] 395a-b; CH 3 [1147a25-b5] 397c-d; BK VIII, CH 12 [1162a16-25] 414c; BK IX, CH 9 [1169b17-19] 423b; [1170a16-18] 423d-424a; BK X, CH 7 [1177a26-1178a8] 432c; CH 8 [1178a23-27] 433c / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253a1-39] 446b-d; CH 5 [1254a15-25] 448b; BK VII, CH 13 [1332a39-b7] 537a-b; CH 15 [1334a12-28] 539c-d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 1 [1355b1-3] 594d / Poetics, CH 4 [1448b4-24] 682c-d
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 3 108b-c; CH 9 114c-116b; CH 23 128c-d; CH 28, 134a-d; BK II, CH 8, 146a-147a; CH 11 150a-151b; BK IV, CH 5, 228c-229b; CH 11 240d-242d
• 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 1 256b,d; BK III, SECT 4 260b-261a; BK IV, SECT 4 264a; SECT 24 265c-d; SECT 29 266a; BK V, SECT 5 269b; SECT 16 271c-d; BK VI, SECT 23 276b; BK VII, SECT 13 280c; SECT 55 283b-c; BK VIII, SECT 12 286b-c; SECT 34 288a-b; BK IX, SECT 1 291a-c; SECT 9 292b-d; SECT 23 293c; BK X, SECT 6 297a-b; BK XI, SECT 8 303a-b; BK XII, SECT 30 310a-b
• 14 PLUTARCH: Pompey, 512c-d
• 15 TACITUS: Histories, BK III, 219d; BK IV, 271b
• 17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR I 1a-6b; TR II, CH 14 18a-c / Third Ennead, TR I, CH 4 94c-95c; TR IV, CH 2 97d-98a / Sixth Ennead, TR VII, CH 4-6 323c-325a
• 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK XIII, PAR 12 113b-d; PAR 35-37 120b-121a / City of God, BK V, CH 11 216c-d; BK VII, CH 23, 256b-c; BK XI, CH 26-28 336d-338d / On Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 8 626c-627a
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, QQ 75-83 378a-440b
• 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, VII [91-148] 117d-118c
• 23 MACHIAVELLI: The Prince, CH XVII, 24a-c; CH XVIII 25a-26a passim
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO 47a-d; PART I, 76c-d; 79b-d; 83a; 84c-86b; PART II, 99a-b; 104d; 138d-139a; 141a-b
• 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 1a,c; 65c-d
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 119b-d; 207a-c; 215a-232c esp 216c-219a, 231d-232c; 381b-c; 462d-463a
• 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT II, SC II [314-322] 43d; ACT IV, SC IV [31-66] 59a-c
• 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 454a
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20c-d
• 31 DESCARTES: Discourse on Method, PART IV 51b-54b passim / Meditations on First Philosophy, I 77d-81d
• 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART II, AXIOM 1-2 373c-d; PROP 10-13 376c-378c; PART IV, PROP 18, SCHOL 429a-d; PROP 35 433b-434a; APPENDIX 447a-450d
• 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK II [345-353] 118b-119a; BK III [80-216] 137a-140a; BK IV [288-369] 158b-160b; BK VII [519-640] 228b-231a / Samson Agonistes [667-709] 354a-355a / Areopagitica, 384a
• 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 111 194a; 115 194b; 125-183 195b-204b; 365 236a; 396-424 240b-243b / On the Vacuum, 357a-358a
• 35 LOCKE: Of Civil Government, CH VI, SECT 67 39c-d; CH VII, SECT 77 42b / An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXVIII, SECT 8 221a-222a; BK III, CH VI, SECT 22 273d-274a; SECT 33 278b-c; CH X, SECT 17 295d-296b; CH XI, SECT 20 304c-d; BK IV, CH IV, SECT 13-16 326d-328d; CH VII, SECT 16-18 344a-c; CH XVI, SECT 12, 370c-371a; CH XVII, SECT 1 371c-d
• 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART IV, 151b-152a; 159b-160a
• 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 383a-384a; 394a
• 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 1b-d; 187d-188d; 205a-c
• 38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK I, 1d-2d; BK XXIII, 187d; BK XXVIII, 259b
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 329a-348a,c passim esp 329a-334a,c, 343a-345c
• 39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK I, 71b-d; BK III, 147d-148a; BK V, 343a-d
• 40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 409d-410a
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 199c-200c / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 270c-d; 271d-273b; 284b-285a / The Critique of Practical Reason, 316c-317a: 348a-b / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 372a-b; 373d / The Science of Right, 400b,d-402a esp 401b-402a; 421c-422d / The Critique of Judgement, 479a-c; 571c-572a; 583b-c; 584d-585c; 587a-588a; 591b-592d
• 43 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE: [7-9] 1a
• 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 6 38d-41c passim; NUMBER 10, 50b-d; NUMBER 15, 65b-c; NUMBER 17, 69c; NUMBER 27, 95d; NUMBER 34, 110c-d; NUMBER 37, 120d-121a; NUMBER 49, 160a; NUMBER 51, 163b-c; NUMBER 55, 174c-d; NUMBER 57, 177b-c; NUMBER 71, 214b-c; NUMBER 76, 226d-227b
• 43 MILL: On Liberty, 273d; 294a-297b esp 295a-b / Utilitarianism, 448d-449b; 459c-464d
• 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., 377d; 403a
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 190 66a-b; PAR 209 69d; PAR 270, 86d-87b [fn 1]; ADDITIONS, 34 122a-b; 121 136c-d / The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 178a-179d
• 47 GOETHE: Faust, PROLOGUE [280-292] 8a; PART I [1110-1117] 27b-28a; [3240-3250] 79b; PART II [8082-8131] 197a-198a
• 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 84b-85a; 236a-239a; 306a; 313b-314a; 343a; 345b-347b
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 286a-287b; 287d; 291a; 302b; 310a-314a esp 310a-d, 312a-b; 319b-d; 349d; 597c
• 50 MARX: Capital, 98a; 159a
• 50 MARX-ENGELS: Manifesto of the Communist Party, 431b-c
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 689b-c
• 52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK III, 54a-b; BK V, 127b-137c
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 49b-50a; 712b-737a passim, esp 716a-717b, 721a, 730a, 736b-737a; 826a-827a
• 54 FREUD: Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 684d-686c esp 686c / Thoughts for the Times on War and Death, 758a / Civilization and Its Discontents, 787a / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 883b-c

1a. The conception of man as essentially distinct, or differing in kind, from brute animals: man’s specific rationality and freedom

• OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:20-30 esp 1:26-30; 5:1-2; 9:6
• APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 17:1-9—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 17:1-9
• 7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44a-45a / Timaeus, 452d-453a
• 8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK I, CH 1 [980a22-b29] 499a-b / On the Soul, BK II, CH 3 [414b17-20] 644d; [415a7-12] 645b; BK III, CH 3 [427a7-14] 659d-660a; [428a20-24] 660c; CH 10 [433a8-13] 665d / On Memory and Reminiscence, CH 2 [453a5-14] 695b
• 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK VIII, CH 1 [588a18-b4] 114b,d / Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [641b5-8] 164b-c; BK IV, CH 10 [686a27-33] 217d-218a; [687a4-10] 218c-d / Generation of Animals, BK II, CH 6 [744a27-31] 285c / Nicomachean Ethics, BK I, CH 7 [1097b23-1098a7] 343a-b; CH 13 [1102a27-1103a3] 347d-348c; BK III, CH 2 [1111b6-12] 357b-c; BK VII, CH 1 [1145a15-33] 395a-b; CH 3 [1147a25-b5] 397c-d; BK IX, CH 9 [1170a16-18] 423d-424a; BK X, CH 7 [1177b26-1178a8] 432c; CH 8 [1178a23-27] 433c / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253a1-39] 446b-d; CH 5 [1254a15-25] 448b; BK VII, CH 13 [1332a39-b7] 537a-b; CH 15 [1334a12-28] 539c-d
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 3 108b-c; CH 6 110c-112b; CH 9 114c-116b; CH 16 121d-122d; CH 28, 134a-d; BK II, CH 8, 146a-147a; BK III, CH 7, 183c-184a; BK IV, CH 1 213a-223d; CH 5, 228c-229b; CH 7, 233a-b
• 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 16 259a; BK III, SECT 16 262d-263a,c; BK V, SECT 16 271c-d; BK VI, SECT 23 276b; BK VIII, SECT 7 286a; SECT 41 288d; BK IX, SECT 9 292b-d
• 17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR I 1a-6b esp CH 10, 5a / Third Ennead, TR I, CH 4 94c-95c / Sixth Ennead, TR VII, CH 4-6 323c-325a
• 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK XIII, PAR 12 113b-d; PAR 35-37 120b-121a / City of God, BK V, CH 11 216c-d; BK VII, CH 23, 256b-c; BK VIII, CH 6, 269a; BK XI, CH 26-28 336d-338d / On Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 8 626c-627a; CH 22 629b-630a
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 3, A 1, REP 2 14b-15b; Q 18, A 2, REP 1 105c-106b; A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 19, A 10, ANS 117d-118b; Q 23, A 1, ANS and REP 2-3 132c-133b; Q 30, A 2, REP 3 168a-169b; Q 59, A 3, ANS 308b-309a; Q 72, A 1, REP 1,3-4 368b-369d; QQ 75-83 378a-440b; Q 86, A 4, REP 3 463d-464d; Q 91, A 3, REP 1-3 486b-487d; Q 92, A 1, ANS 488d-489d; Q 96 510a-513c esp A 1 510b-511b, A 4 512d-513c; PART I-II, PROLOGUE 609a,c; Q 1, AA 1-2 609b-611b; Q 6, A 2 646a-c; Q 11, A 2 667b-d; Q 12, A 5 672a-c; Q 13, A 2 673c-674c; Q 15, A 2 682a-c; Q 17, A 2 687d-688b
• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 50, A 3, REP 2 8b-9a; Q 110, A 4, REP 3 350d-351d; PART III SUPPL, Q 79, A 1, ANS 951b-953b
• 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, XXVI [112-120] 39b; XXXI [46-57] 46c; PURGATORY, XXV [34-78] 91d-92a; PARADISE, V [19-24] 112b; VII [121-148] 116b-c
• 22 CHAUCER: Knight’s Tale [1303-1333] 181b-182a
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 184b-c; 215a-232c esp 216c-219a, 231d-232c
• 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT IV, SC IV [32-39] 59a
• 31 DESCARTES: Discourse on Method, PART I, 41b,d; PART IV 51b-54b passim; PART V, 56a-b; 59a-60c / Meditations on First Philosophy, II 77d-81d esp 78b-c; IV 89a-93a / Objections and Replies, 156a-d; 209b; 226a-d; 276c
• 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART II, AXIOM 2 373d; PART III, PROP 57 414d-415b; PART IV, PROP 35, SCHOL 433d-434a; PROP 37, SCHOL 1-2 434d-436a passim
• 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK VII [449-549] 227a-229a; BK VIII [369-451] 240a-242a; BK IX [549-566] 259b; BK XII [63-110] 320b-321b
• 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 140 199a-b; 339-348 233a-234a; 418 243a
• 35 LOCKE: Of Civil Government, CH VI, SECT 56-63 36d-38c; CH XIV, SECT 163-164 63a-c / An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH XI, SECT 10-11 145d-146a; CH XXVII, SECT 8 221a-222a; SECT 12 223a-b; BK III, CH VI, SECT 26-27 274d-276a; CH X, SECT 17 295d-296b; CH XI, SECT 20 304c-d
• 38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK I, 1d-2b
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 337d-338c; 357c-358b / The Social Contract, BK I, 393b-c
• 39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK I, 6d-7b; 8a-b
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 164a-165c / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 264d-265a; 279b,d; 281c-282c / The Critique of Practical Reason, 291a-293b; 316c-317a / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 378b-c / The Science of Right, 400b,d-402a esp 401b-402a; 420d-421a / The Critique of Judgement, 584d-585c
• 43 MILL: On Liberty, 294a-297b
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, INTRO, PAR 21 17a-c; PART I, PAR 47 24a-b; PART II, PAR 132 46b-47a; PAR 139 48d-49b; ADDITIONS, 4 116a-d; 10 117d-118a; 22 120c-d; 28 121b; 62 126a / The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156c; 168b-d; 178a-b; 186a; PART I, 257d-258a; PART III, 304d-305a
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 287b-c; 319b-d; 331b-332a

1b. The conception of man as distinguished from brutes by such powers or properties as abstraction or relational thought, language and law, art and science

• OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:19-20
• 5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [442-506] 44c-45a
• 5 EURIPIDES: Suppliants [195-213] 260a-b / Trojan Women [665-672] 275d
• 7 PLATO: Laches, 35b-d / Protagoras, 44a-45a / Theaetetus, 534d-536a esp 535d-536a / Laws, BK II, 653a-c
• 8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK V, CH 1 [128b15-16] 178b; CH 3 [132a1-9] 182d; [132a17-22] 183a; CH 4 [133a15-23] 184b; CH 5 [134a8-17] 185b-c / On the Heavens, BK II, CH 12 [292b1-11] 384a / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 1 [980b25-981b27] 499b-d / On the Soul, BK III, CH 3 [427b7-14] 659d-660a; [428a20-24] 660c / On Memory and Reminiscence, CH 2 [453a5-14] 695b
• 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [488b20-27] 9d; BK IV, CH 9 [536b1-8] 63a-b; BK VIII, CH 1 [588a18-b4] 114b,d; BK IX, CH 1 [608a10-b19] 133b,d-134a / Parts of Animals, BK II, CH 10 [656a8-9] 182a; CH 16 [659b28]-CH 17 [660a3] 186d-187c; BK III, CH 6 [669a18-20] 197c; CH 10 [673a4-10] 201d-202a; BK IV, CH 10 [686a25-687b5] 217d-219a esp [686b24] 218b, [687a4-23] 218c-d / Generation of Animals, BK II, CH 6 [744a27-31] 285c; BK V, CH 2 [781b17-23] 323d-324a; CH 7 [786b15-22] 328c-d / Nicomachean Ethics, BK I, CH 7 [1097b7-11] 342d-343a; BK III, CH 2 [1111b6-12] 357b-c; BK VII, CH 1 [1145a15-33] 395a-b; CH 3 [1147a25-b5] 397c-d; BK VIII, CH 12 [1162a16-25] 414c; BK IX, CH 9 [1169b17-19] 423b / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253a1-39] 446b-d; BK VII, CH 13 [1332a39-b7] 537a-b / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 1 [1355b1-3] 594d / Poetics, CH 4 [1448b4-24] 682c-d
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 3 108b-c; CH 28, 134a-d; BK IV, CH 11 240d-242d
• 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 16 262d-263a,c; BK IX, SECT 9 292b-d
• 23 MACHIAVELLI: The Prince, CH XVIII, 25a
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 52b; 53a-b; 54a; 54c; 57d; 59b-c; 63a; 79b-d; PART II, 100a-c
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 215b-216b; 218a-c
• 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 427d-428a
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20c-d / Novum Organum, BK II, APH 35, 163d-164a
• 31 DESCARTES: Discourse on Method, PART V, 59c-60b / Objections and Replies, 226a-d
• 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK VIII [369-451] 240a-242a; BK IX [549-566] 259b
• 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, INTRO, SECT 1 93a-b; BK II, CH XI, SECT 4-11 144d-146a esp SECT 10 145d; BK III, CH I, SECT 1-3 251b,d-252a; CH VI, SECT 33 278b-c; BK IV, CH XII, SECT 11, 361c-d; CH XVIII, SECT 11, 384b
• 35 BERKELEY: The Principles of Human Knowledge, INTRO, SECT 11 407b-408a
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT I, DIV 4, 452b-c
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 341d; 349d-350a
• 39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK I, 6d-8b
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 164a-165c; 199c-200c / The Critique of Practical Reason, 316c-317a / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 372a-b / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 386b-d / The Critique of Judgement, 479a-c; 602b,d [fn 1]
• 43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448a-449c
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 211 70a-c; ADDITIONS, 26 121a-b; 121 136c-d; 157 142b-c / The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 168b-d
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 278a-279a; 294c-304a esp 294c-d, 297a-298a, 304a; 311d; 320a-b; 349d; 591d-593c
• 50 MARX: Capital, 85b-c; 86b-c
• 52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 122d-123a; BK VI, 167c-d
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 85a-b; 677a; 678b-686b esp 678b, 683b-684a, 686a-b; 691a-b; 704a-706b esp 706b; 873a
• 54 FREUD: The Interpretation of Dreams, 385b-c / The Unconscious, 429c-d / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 616b-c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 778a

1c. The conception of man as an animal, differing only in degree of intelligence and of other qualities possessed by other animals

• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 79, A 1, ANS 951b-953b
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 52b; 53a-b; 53d-54a; 59b; 64a-c; 79c; PART II, 112d-113a; PART IV, 267b
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 207a-c; 215a-232c esp 216c-219a, 231d-232c
• 30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 35, 163d-164a
• 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK IX [549-566] 259b
• 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK III, CH VI, SECT 12 271d-272b; CH X, SECT 17 295d-296b; CH XI, SECT 20 304c-d; BK IV, CH XVI, SECT 12, 370c-371a
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT IX 487b-488c
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 334b,d-338d; 348d-349c
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 199c-200c
• 43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448a-449c; 469b-d
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 286a-319d esp 287a-b, 294c, 304a-305c, 319b-d; 331b-332a; 591d-592a
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 689c-690a
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 677a; 690b
• 54 FREUD: The Sexual Enlightenment of Children, 121d; 122c

2. Man’s knowledge of man

2a. Immediate self-consciousness: man’s intimate or introspective knowledge of himself

• 7 PLATO: Charmides, 7b-c; 8b-d / Phaedrus, 116c-d / Philebus, 629b-c
• 8 ARISTOTLE: On the Soul, BK III, CH 4 [429b5-9] 661d; [429b25-29] 662b; [430a2-9] 662b-c
• 9 ARISTOTLE: Nicomachean Ethics, BK IX, CH 9 [1170a28-b1] 424a
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 1, 105a-b; CH 27, 133a-b
• 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK XI, SECT 1 302a-b
• 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK X, PAR 3 72a; PAR 7 73a / City of God, BK XI, CH 26 336d-337b; CH 27, 337d-338a
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 87, A 1, ANS 465a-466c; A 2, ANS 466c-467b; A 4, ANS 468b-d
• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 112, A 5, ANS and REP 1,5 359c-360c
• 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVIII [49-60] 80b-c
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47b-d
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 6d-7a; 69d-70c; 177d-181d esp 180b-d; 253d-254a; 319d-320b; 322b-323b; 388c-389c; 485c-486a; 520b-522a
• 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 332b
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 54b-c; 88c-89b
• 31 DESCARTES: Discourse on Method, PART IV, 51c-52a / Meditations on First Philosophy, II. 77d-81d / Objections and Replies, 207b; 224b,d; 276b-c
• 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART II, PROP 19-23 382b-383c
• 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 396-399 240b
• 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH I, SECT 1-8 121a-123a esp SECT 7-8 122c-123a; CH IX, SECT 1-2 138b-c; CH XIX 175b-176b; CH XXI, SECT 30 185a-c; CH XXVII, SECT 15 208c-d; SECT 32-33 212c-213a; CH XXVII, SECT 9 222a-b; BK IV, CH IX, SECT 2-3 349a-c
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT I, DIV 8, 454a-b; SECT VII, DIV 51-53 472b-474b
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 349b-c
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 32a-c; 55a-56c; 99a-101b; 121a-123b / The Critique of Practical Reason, 292d [fn 1]; 307d-310c / The Critique of Judgement, 599d-600d
• 43 MILL: On Liberty, 303b-c
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, INTRO, PAR 5 13a-c; PAR 7 14a-c; PART I, PAR 35 21a-b; ADDITIONS, 5 116d-117a; 22 120c-d; 25 121a / The Philosophy of History, PART I, 257d-258a; PART II, 278a-c; PART III, 304a-b; 310d
• 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [3217-3239] 79a-b; PART II [11433-452] 278a-b
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE I, 688b-689b; 693d-694c
• 52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK XI, 341c
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 121a-b; 122b-126a; 191a-197a esp 193a, 196a-197a; 221b; 223b-224a; 233a-b
• 54 FREUD: The Interpretation of Dreams, 383b-c / The Unconscious, 429c-430c / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 451a-b; 620a / The Ego and the Id, 702d-703a

2b. The sciences of human nature: anthropology and psychology; rational and empirical psychology; experimental and clinical psychology

• 8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK VI, CH 1 [1026a5-6] 548a / On the Soul, BK I, CH 1 631a-632d; BK II, CH 4 [415b14-22] 645b-c
• 9 ARISTOTLE: Nicomachean Ethics, BK I, CH 13 [1102a5-25] 347b-c
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 261c-269b passim
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 54b-c
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT I 451a-455b passim; SECT VIII, DIV 65 479b-480a
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 329a-330b
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 1a-4a,c esp 1b-d / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 253b-254b; 271a-c / The Critique of Practical Reason, 294a-b; 307d-310c / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 388a-c / The Critique of Judgement, 599d-600d
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, INTRO, PAR 11 15a-b
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, xiiib-xiva; 1a-4a; 120a-129b
• 54 FREUD: The Unconscious, 431b-d / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 451a-453a esp 451b-452a / Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 664a-665a / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 864a-868d esp 868b-c; 873c-d

(1) The subject matter and scope of the science of man

• 8 ARISTOTLE: On the Soul, BK I, CH 1 631a-632d
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 87 464d-468d
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 49d-50b; 54b-c
• 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, INTRO, SECT 1-4 93a-94b
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT I 451a-455b
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 329a-331d
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Practical Reason, 294a-b / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 388b-c / The Critique of Judgement, 599d-600d esp 600d
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, xiiib-xiva; 3b-4a; 120a-121a; 129b; 236a; 825a [fn 1]
• 54 FREUD: The Unconscious, 428a-429c esp 429b / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 452a-454b; 467b-d; 550a-b; 606a / Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 664a-665b / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 866a-b

(2) The methods and validity of psychology

• 8 ARISTOTLE: On the Soul, BK I, CH 1 631a-632d; BK II, CH 4 [415b14-22] 645b-c
• 9 ARISTOTLE: Nicomachean Ethics, BK I, CH 13 [1102a5-25] 347b-c
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 87 464d-468d
• 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVIII [49-60] 80b-c
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47b-d; PART I, 163a
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 49d-50b; 54b-c
• 35 BERKELEY: The Principles of Human Knowledge, SECT 145 441d-442a; SECT 148 442b-d
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT I, DIV 8 454a-c; SECT IX, DIV 82 487b-c
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 55a-56c; 121a-123b; 126c-d / The Critique of Practical Reason, 292d [fn 1]; 294a-b; 307d-310c / The Critique of Judgement, 599d-600d
• 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 70, 234b-c
• 52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK XII, 386c-387d
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 17b-18b; 56a-66a passim; 121a-129b esp 126a-129b; 146a; 165a; 235b-236a esp 236b [fn 1]; 259a-b; 822b; 825a [fn 1]
• 54 FREUD: The Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis, 13c-14a / The Unconscious, 429b-c; 434c / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 451d-452a; 548a-550c esp 550a-b; 606a-b / Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 639a-b; 661c-662b / The Ego and the Id, 706d-707a

(3) The relation of psychology to physiology: the study of organic factors in human behavior

• 7 PLATO: Phaedo, 240d-242b / Timaeus, 474b-475d
• 8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [246b20-248a8] 330a-d / On the Soul, BK I, CH 1 [403a2-b19] 632a-d; BK II, CH 1 642a-643a; CH 9 [421a22-26] 653b; BK III, CH 4 [429a28-b4] 661c-d; CH 9 [432b26-433a1] 665c / On Sleep and Sleeplessness 696a-701d esp CH 1 696a-697c / On Dreams 702a-706d passim, esp CH 2 703a-704d
• 9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK II, CH 4 175b-176a; CH 7 [653b1-7] 178d-179a; BK III, CH 6 [669a18-20] 197c; BK IV, CH 10 [686b22-29] 218b-c / Movement of Animals, CH 7 [701b13]-CH 8 [702a22] 237a-c; CH 11 239a-d
• 10 HIPPOCRATES: On the Sacred Disease, 155d-160d esp 159a-c
• 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK III [94-829] 31b-40c
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 75, A 3, REP 3 380c-381b; A 4 381b-382a; Q 76, A 5 394c-396a; Q 84, AA 7-8 449b-451b; Q 85, A 7 459c-460b; PART I-II, Q 41, A 1, ANS 798b-d
• 28 HARVEY: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, 271a-b; 296d / On the Circulation of the Blood, 321d-322a; 322c-d / On Animal Generation, 431d-432a
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 48d-50b
• 31 DESCARTES: Discourse on Method, PART V, 60b-c; PART VI, 61c / Meditations on First Philosophy, VI, 99d / Objections and Replies, 207d-208a; 209c
• 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART II, PROP 14 380c; PROP 16-17 380d-381d; PROP 26, DEMONST 384a-b; PART V, PREF 451a-452c; PROP 39 462a-c
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 338a
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Judgement, 538d-539a
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE I, 689c-690a
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 2b-4a; 7a; 9a-56a esp 9a-b, 52a-53b; 66b-71a passim; 690b
• 54 FREUD: The Interpretation of Dreams, 154c-155a / The Unconscious, 429a-b; 431c-d / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 451d-452a; 605b-606b / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 721a / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 872c-d

(4) The place of psychology in the order of sciences: the study of man as prerequisite for other studies

• 7 PLATO: Charmides, 7b-c; 8b-d / Phaedrus, 116c-d / Phaedo, 240d-242b / Republic, BK III, 316a-b; BK IV, 350a-b / Philebus, 629b-c
• 8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK VI, CH 1 [1026a5-6] 548a
• 9 ARISTOTLE: Nicomachean Ethics, BK I, CH 13 [1102a5-25] 347b-c / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 2 [1356a21-29] 595d
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47b-d
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 69d-70c; 259a-260b; 308c-d
• 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 443b
• 31 DESCARTES: Discourse on Method, PART IV, 51c-52a / Meditations on First Philosophy, II 77d-81d / Objections and Replies, 207b
• 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 66 180b; 144-146 200b
• 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, 87d; INTRO 93a-95d
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT I, DIV 7-8 453c-454c
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 329a-330b
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 1a-4a,c esp 1b-d / The Critique of Practical Reason, 307d-310c; 331a-332d / The Critique of Judgement, 511a-512a; 599d-600d
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, INTRO, PAR 4 12d-13a; PAR 19 16d-17a
• 54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 868b-d; 874a-c; 883c-d

3. The constitution of man

3a. Man as a unity or conjunction of matter and spirit, body and soul, extension and thought

• OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 2:7
• APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 9:14-15; 15:11—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 9:14-15; 15:11
• NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 7:14-23; 8:4-13 / I Corinthians, 15:36-49
• 7 PLATO: Cratylus, 93b-d / Phaedrus, 124b-d / Phaedo, 231b-234c / Republic, BK III, 338a-339a / Timaeus, 453b-c / Laws, BK V, 686d-687c
• 8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK VII, CH 10 [1035b13-32] 559a-b; BK VIII, CH 3 [1043a29-b4] 567d; CH 6 569d-570d; BK XII, CH 10 [1075b34-37] 606d / On the Soul, BK I, CH 1 [403a2-19] 632a-d; CH 5 [410a10-16] 640c; [411b5-18] 641c-d; BK II, CH 1-2 642a-644c
• 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK I, CH 5 [1254a33-b7] 448a
• 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK III [94-176] 31b-32b; [370-395] 34d-35a
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 3 108b-c; BK IV, CH 11, 240d-241b
• 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK IV, SECT 21 265b-c; BK VII, SECT 55 283b-c; BK IX, SECT 8 292b; BK XII, SECT 30 310a-b
• 14 PLUTARCH: Romulus, 29a-b
• 17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR I 1a-6b / Second Ennead, TR I, CH 5, 37c / Fourth Ennead, TR III, CH 19-23 151d-154b esp CH 20 152b-153a; TR VII, CH 1 191c-d; CH 8, 197c-198b / Sixth Ennead, TR VII, CH 4-6 323c-325a
• 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK V, CH 11, 216c; BK IX, CH 8-17 289d-295c passim; BK X, CH 29 316d-318b; BK XIII, CH 16 367a-d; CH 19 369c-370c; BK XIV, CH 2-3 377a-378d; CH 5 379c-380b
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 8, A 1, REP 2 34d-35c; A 2, REP 2 35c-36b; QQ 75-76 378a-399b; Q 118, A 2, ANS and REP 2 601c-603b; A 3, ANS 603b-604b; Q 119, A 1, ANS 604c-607b; PART I-II, Q 4, A 5, REP 2 632c-634b; Q 17, A 4, ANS and REP 3 688d-689c
• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III, Q 2, A 1, ANS and REP 2 710a-711c; A 5 715a-716b; Q 17, A 2, REP 4 808d-809d; PART III SUPPL, Q 79, A 1-Q 80, A 2 951b-958b
• 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XXV [34-78] 91d-92a
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 311a-b; 432b-d; 538a-543a,c
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 48d-49c
• 31 DESCARTES: Discourse on Method, PART IV, 51d-52a; PART V, 60b-c / Meditations on First Philosophy, II 77d-81d; VI, 98c-99a; 99d-100a / Objections and Replies, 119d-120a; DEF VI-VII 130c-d; DEF X 130d; PROP IV 133c; 135d-136b; 152b,d-156a; 170b-c; 207d-208a; 209c; 224d-225d; 231a-232d; 248b; 276b-c
• 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART II, PROP 10-13 376c-378c; PART III, PROP 2 396c-398b; PART V, PREF 451a-452c
• 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 512 262a
• 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK I, CH III, SECT 4, 113b; BK II, CH XXVII, SECT 6-8 220c-222a esp SECT 8, 221d-222a; SECT 15 224b-c; SECT 21 225d-226a; SECT 27-29 227d-228c; BK IV, CH III, SECT 6 313c-315b passim
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT VII, DIV 52 472c-473c
• 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 229b-230a; 270b; 277a-b
• 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 198a-c
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Judgement, 557c-558b
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART I, PAR 47-48 24a-c; ADDITIONS, 2 115d
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 1a-4a esp 2b-3a, 4a; 84a-93b esp 88a-90b; 116a-119b; 130a; 139a-140a; 208a-b; 221a-226a esp 221a-222b, 225b-226a
• 54 FREUD: The Interpretation of Dreams, 154c-155a

(1) Man as a pure spirit: a soul or mind using a body

• 7 PLATO: Cratylus, 93b-d / Phaedrus, 124b-126c / Meno, 179d-180b / Phaedo, 231b-234c; 250a-d / Timaeus, 452d-454a
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK IV, CH 11, 240d-241a
• 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VI [724-751] 230b-231a
• 17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR I 1a-6b esp CH 5-7 2d-4a / Second Ennead, TR I, CH 5, 37c / Third Ennead, TR IV, CH 2 97d-98a / Fourth Ennead, TR VII, CH 1 191c-d / Sixth Ennead, TR VII, CH 4-6 323c-325a
• 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIII, CH 16 367a-d; CH 19 369c-370c
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 29, A 1, REP 5 162a-163b; Q 75, A 4 381b-382a; Q 76, A 1, ANS 385d-388c; A 4, ANS 393a-394c; A 7, ANS 396d-397d; Q 118, A 3, ANS 603b-604b
• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 79, A 1, ANS and REP 4 951b-953b
• 31 DESCARTES: Discourse on Method, PART IV, 51c-52a; PART V, 60b-c / Meditations on First Philosophy, II. 77d-81d; VI, 98c-d / Objections and Replies, 119d-120a; DEF VI-VII 130c-d; DEF X 130d; PROP IV 133c; 135d-136b; 152d; 155c-156a; 207d-208a
• 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART III, PROP 2 396c-398b; PART V, PREF 451a-452c
• 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXVII, SECT 6-8 220c-222a esp SECT 8, 221d-222a; SECT 21 225d-226a; SECT 28-29 228a-c
• 35 BERKELEY: The Principles of Human Knowledge, SECT 2 413b; SECT 89 430b-c; SECT 135-142 440a-441c; SECT 148 442b-d
• 40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 186a-b
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART I, PAR 35 21a-b; PAR 47 24a-b; ADDITIONS, 5 116d-117a; 22 120c-d; 25 121a; 28 121b / The Philosophy of History, PART III, 310d
• 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 28a; 380b-381a
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK VIII, 295b-c
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 220b-226a

(2) Man’s spirituality as limited to his immaterial powers or functions, such as reason and will

• 8 ARISTOTLE: On the Soul, BK I, CH 4 [408b18-29] 638c; CH 5 [411b13-18] 641c-d; BK II, CH 2 [413b24-29] 643d-644a; BK III, CH 4-5 661b-662d
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 7, A 2, REP 2 31d-32c; Q 29, A 1, REP 5 162a-163b; Q 75, A 2 379c-380c; AA 5-6 382a-384c; Q 76 385c-399b passim; Q 77, A 5 403d-404c; Q 78, A 1, ANS 407b-409a; Q 79 413d-427a; Q 80, A 2 428a-d; QQ 82-83 431d-440b; Q 84, A 1, ANS and REP 1 440d-442a; A 2, ANS 442b-443c; A 6, ANS 447c-449a; Q 85, A 1, ANS 451c-453c; Q 86, A 1, REP 3 461c-462a; Q 87, A 1, REP 3 465a-466c; Q 91, A 1, ANS and REP 1 484a-485b; Q 96, A 2 511b-d; Q 98, A 1, ANS 516d-517c; Q 118, A 2, ANS 601c-603b

3b. Comparisons of man with God or the gods, or with angels or spiritual substances

• OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:26-27; 5:1-2; 9:6 / Job, 4:16-21 / Psalms, 8:5—(D) Psalms, 8:6
• APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 2:23—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 2:23
• NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 22:23-30 / I Corinthians, 11:7 / Hebrews, 2:7 / James, 3:9 / II Peter, 1:3-4 / Revelation, 22:8-9—(D) Apocalypse, 22:8-9
• 7 PLATO: Protagoras, 44a-45a / Republic, BK VI, 382c / Timaeus, 476a-b
• 9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK IV, CH 10 [686a27-33] 217d-218a
• 10 HIPPOCRATES: On the Sacred Disease, 155c-d
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 3 108b-c; CH 12, 119b-120a, CH 14 120d-121c; BK II, CH 16, 158b-d
• 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK VI, PAR 4 36a-b; BK XII, PAR 20 103c-d; BK XIII, PAR 32 119a-b / City of God, BK VIII, CH 25 283b-c; BK IX, CH 8-17 289d-295c; BK X, CH 21 357a-b; CH 23 357d-358a, BK XIII, CH 1 360a-b, BK XVI, CH 6 426c-427a / On Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 22, 629b-c; CH 23 630a-c; CH 30 632c-633b; CH 33 633d-634b
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 7, A 2, REP 2 31d-32c; Q 30, A 2, REP 3 168a-169b; Q 47, A 2, ANS 257b-258c; QQ 50-64 269a-338d passim; Q 75, A 7 384d-385c; Q 93 492a-501c; Q 96, A 2 511b-d; QQ 106-107 545c-552b passim; Q 108, A 1, ANS 552c-553c; A 8 561a-562a; Q 112, A 1, REP 4 571d-573a; Q 117, A 2, REP 3 597c-598c; A 3, ANS 598c-599b; Q 118, A 3, ANS 603b-604b; PART I-II, Q 4, A 5, REP 6 632c-634b
• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 50, A 6 11a-12a, PART III, Q 6, A 3, REP 2 742a-743a
• 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, VII [121-148] 116b-c; XXIX [13-84] 150b-151a
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART III, 162c; PART III, 183d-184a
• 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT II, SC II [314-324] 43d
• 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK II [345-353] 118b-119a; BK IV [358-393] 160a-161a; BK V [388-450] 183b-185a; [469-505] 185b-186a; BK VI [320-353] 203a-204a; BK X [888-908] 293b-294a
• 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 140 199a-b; 418 243a
• 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH XX, SECT 9 143a-c; CH XXIII, SECT 13 207d-208b; BK IV, CH III, SECT 17 317c; SECT 23 320a-c
• 35 BERKELEY: The Principles of Human Knowledge, SECT 81 428c-d
• 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 394a
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 33a-d / The Critique of Practical Reason, 350c-351b
• 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [482-517] 14a-b; [602-736] 16b-19b passim; PART II [8094-8097] 197a
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK VIII, 295b-c
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 745a

3c. Man as an organization of matter or as a collocation of atoms

• 7 PLATO: Sophist, 567a-568a / Laws, BK X, 761b
• 8 ARISTOTLE: On Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 6 [334a10-15] 435a / On the Soul, BK I, CH 2-5 633a-641d
• 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 12 172d-173c
• 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK II [251-293] 18b-d; BK III [94-869] 31b-41a; BK IV [722-817] 53d-54d; [877-961] 55d-56d
• 17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR I, CH 3 79b-c / Fourth Ennead, TR VII 191c-200c esp CH 1-4 191c-193c, CH 8, 195b-196a, 196c-197c
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 75, A 1 378b-379c; Q 84, A 2, ANS 442b-443c; A 6, ANS 447c-449a
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a; PART I, 49a-d; 80a-b; PART IV, 251a-b
• 31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 226a-d
• 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXVII, SECT 21 225d-226a, SECT 28-29 228a-c; BK IV, CH III, SECT 6 313c-315b; CH X, SECT 5 350a-b; SECT 10 351b-352a, SECT 17 353b-c
• 35 BERKELEY: The Principles of Human Knowledge, SECT 93 431b; SECT 137 440b-c; SECT 141 441a-b
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 126c-d / The Critique of Judgement, 557c-559d; 575b-578a, 578d-582c; 599d-600d
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, PART I, 255d
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 689c-690a
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 95a-119b
• 54 FREUD: New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 829a-b

4. The analysis of human nature into its faculties, powers, or functions: the id, ego, and super-ego in the structure of the psyche

• 7 PLATO: Republic, BK IV, 350a-353d
• 8 ARISTOTLE: On the Soul, BK II-III 642a-668d
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, QQ 77-83 399b-440b
• 31 DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy, VI 96b-103d passim
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Judgement, 465c-467a; 475b-d
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 287a-302b passim
• 54 FREUD: A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 501d-504b; 531d-532b / Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 681a-b / The Ego and the Id, 701d-708c esp 702c, 706d-707d; 715a-716c / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 721d-722c / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 830a-840a esp 836c-838d

4a. Man’s vegetative powers: comparison with similar functions in plants and animals

• 7 PLATO: Republic, BK V, 361c-362a / Timaeus, 469d-471d
• 8 ARISTOTLE: On Generation and Corruption, BK I, CH 5 417b-420b / On the Soul, BK II, CH 2 [413a20-b3] 643b-d; CH 4 645b-647b; BK III, CH 9 [432b8-10] 665a; CH 12 [434a22-26] 667a-b
• 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK VIII, CH 1 [588b23-589a8] 115b / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 23 271b-d; BK II, CH 1 [735a13-24] 275d-276a; CH 4 [740b9-741a5] 281c-282a / Nicomachean Ethics, BK I, CH 7 [1097b33-1098a1] 343b; CH 13 [1102a33-b13] 347d-348a
• 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties 167a-215d esp BK I, CH 1 167a-b, CH 5-8 169b-171a
• 17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR IV, CH 2 97d-98a / Fourth Ennead, TR III, CH 19, 152a; TR IX, CH 3, 206b
• 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK VII, CH 23, 256b-c; BK XIV, CH 26 395d-396c
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 18, A 3, REP 3 106b-107c; Q 76, A 4, ANS 393a-394c; Q 78, AA 1-2 407b-410a; Q 96, A 2 511b-d; Q 98 516d-519a; Q 118, A 1 600a-601c; A 2, REP 2 601c-603b; Q 119 604c-608d; PART I-II, Q 17, A 8 692a-c
• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 50, A 3, REP 1 8b-9a; PART III SUPPL, Q 80, A 4, ANS and REP 4-5 959c-963a
• 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XXV [34-84] 91d-92b
• 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK IV, 143a-144c
• 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 427d-428b
• 30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 27, 158a-b
• 31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 207a; 244b-c
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 256a-257c
• 54 FREUD: The Sexual Enlightenment of Children, 121d

4b. Man’s sensitive and appetitive powers: comparison with similar functions in other animals

• 7 PLATO: Republic, BK I, 319c-320c; BK IV, 351b-353d / Timaeus, 466a-467d / Theaetetus, 534d-535b / Philebus, 620b-622b / Laws, BK VII, 715b-c; BK XII, 796a-b
• 8 ARISTOTLE: On the Soul, BK I, CH 5 [411a27-31] 641d; BK II, CH 2 [413b20-b13] 643b-d; BK II, CH 5-BK III, CH 3 647b-661b / On Sense and the Sensible 673a-689a,c
• 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK IV, CH 8-10 59d-64b; BK VIII, CH 1 [588a18-589a10] 114b,d-115b; BK IX, CH 1 [608a10-b19] 133b,d-134a / Parts of Animals, BK II, CH 16 [660a13]-CH 17 [660b23] 187a / Movement of Animals, CH 6-11 235d-239d esp CH 10 238c-239a / Generation of Animals, BK III, CH 2 [753a7-16] 294a-b / Nicomachean Ethics, BK I, CH 7 [1097b23-1098a20] 343a-c; CH 13 [1102b13-1103a3] 348a-c; BK III, CH 1 [1111a21-b3] 357a-b; CH 2 [1111b7-9] 357b; CH 10 [1118a17-b7] 364d-365a; BK VI, CH 2 [1139a17-21] 387d; BK VII, CH 3 [1147b3-5] 397d / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253a9-15] 446b-c
• 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 1 167a-b
• 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK IV [522-721] 51a-53d; [1192-1208] 59d-60a
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 3 108b-c
• 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 16 262d-263a,c; BK IX, SECT 9 292b-d
• 17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR I 1a-6b passim / Third Ennead, TR IV, CH 2 97d-98a / Fourth Ennead, TR III, CH 19 151d-152b; TR IV, CH 20-21 167d-168c; CH 23-25 169c-171b; CH 28 172a-173b; TR IX, CH 3 206a-b
• 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK X, PAR 11 74a-b / City of God, BK V, CH 9, 215a; BK VII, CH 23, 256b-c
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 75, A 3, ANS 380c-381b; Q 76, A 3, ANS 391a-393a; A 5, ANS 394c-396a; Q 78, A 1 407b-409a, AA 3-4 410a-413d; QQ 80-81 427a-431d; Q 91, A 3, REP 1,3 486b-487d; Q 96, A 2 511b-d; PART I-II, Q 22, A 3 722d-723b
• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 50, A 3 8b-9a; PART III, Q 2, A 2, REP 2 711d-712d; Q 18, A 2, ANS 811d-812b; PART III SUPPL, Q 79, A 2, REP 3 953b-955c
• 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XXV [34-84] 91d-92b
• 22 CHAUCER: Knight’s Tale [1303-1332] 181b-182a / Manciple’s Tale [17,104-144] 490a-b
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 49a-54c; 61a-c; 64a-c; PART II, 139a; 141a-b; PART IV, 267b
• 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III, 192b-d
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 285c-292d; 424d-425c
• 27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT IV, SC VI [109-191] 274c-275b
• 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 347c-d
• 30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 27, 157b-c; APH 40, 173c-d
• 31 DESCARTES: Rules for the Direction of the Mind, XII, 19a-20d / Discourse on Method, PART V, 59a-b / Objections and Replies, 156a-d
• 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART II, PROP 57, SCHOL 415b
• 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK VIII [369-451] 240a-242a
• 35 LOCKE: Of Civil Government, CH VII, SECT 77-81 42b-43a / An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH IX, SECT 11-15 140b-141a; CH X 141b-143d passim, esp SECT 10 143c-d; CH XI, SECT 4-7 144d-145b
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT IX 487b-488c
• 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART IV, 147b-148b
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 331a-b; 337d-338d; 348d-349c
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 164b-c / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 386b-d / The Critique of Judgement, 479a-d
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 121 136c-d
• 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 134b-135a; 244a-245b; 286b-288a; 289b-291a
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 261c-262a; 287d-291c; 294c; 301c-302b; 304a-313a; 568d-571b
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE I, 689c-690a
• 52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK III, 54a-b
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 49a-50a; 198b-199b; 702a-b; 704a-706b; 712b-737a
• 54 FREUD: The Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis, 20a-d / On Narcissism, 400c-401d / Instincts and Their Vicissitudes 412a-421a,c esp 413a-415b / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 569c-585a esp 574a-d, 579b-581c, 584b-c / Beyond the Pleasure Principle 639a-663d esp 640b-c, 647a-648a, 651d-654c, 659d-661c / The Ego and the Id, 708c-712a esp 708d-709b / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 720b-721a; 737b-738a; 752a / Civilization and Its Discontents, 782a-d [fn 1]; 784d-785a / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 840a-853b esp 843d-844c, 846a-850a, 850d-851d

4c. Man’s rational powers: the problem of similar powers in other animals

• 7 PLATO: Laches, 35b-c / Republic, BK III, 338a-339a; BK IV, 352b-353d / Timaeus, 452c-454a / Theaetetus, 535b-536a / Laws, BK II, 653a-c; BK VII, 723c-d
• 8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK V, CH 3 [132a17-22] 183a / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 1 [980b25-27] 499b; BK IX, CH 2 571c-572a; CH 5 573a-c; CH 7 [1049a5-12] 574c-d / On the Soul, BK II, CH 3 [414b17-20] 644d; [415a7-12] 645b; BK III, CH 3-8 659c-664d; CH 10 [433a8-13] 665d / On Memory and Reminiscence, CH 2 [453a5-14] 695b
• 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [488b20-27] 9d; BK IV, CH 9 [536b1-8] 63a-b; BK VIII, CH 1 [588a18-b4] 114b,d / Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [641a5-10] 164b-c; BK II, CH 16 [659b28]-CH 17 [660a3] 186d-187c; BK III, CH 6 [669a18-20] 197c; CH 10 [673a4-10] 201d-202a; BK IV, CH 10 [686a25-687b5] 217d-219a / Generation of Animals, BK V, CH 7 [786b15-22] 328c-d / Nicomachean Ethics, BK I, CH 7 [1097b23-1098a20] 343a-c; CH 13 [1102b13-1103a3] 348a-c; BK III, CH 2 [1111b6-9] 357b; BK VI, CH 1 [1138b35]-CH 2 [1139b14] 387b-388b; BK VII, CH 3 [1147b2-5] 397d; BK IX, CH 9 [1170a16-18] 423d-424a; BK X, CH 7-8 431d-434a passim, esp CH 7 [1177b26-1178a8] 432c, CH 8 [1178a23-31] 433c / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1253a7-18] 446b-c; BK VII, CH 13 [1332a39-b10] 537a-b; CH 15 [1334b8-28] 539b-d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 1 [1355b1-3] 594d
• 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 12, 173a-c
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 6 110c-112b; CH 28, 134a-c; BK II, CH 8, 146a-b; CH 11 150a-151b; BK III, CH 7, 183c-184a; BK IV, CH 6-7, 231d-233b; CH 7, 234d-235a
• 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 16 262d-263a,c; BK V, SECT 16 271c-d; BK VI, SECT 23 276b; BK VIII, SECT 7 286a; SECT 41 288d; BK IX, SECT 8-9 292b-d; BK XI, SECT 1 302a-b
• 17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR IV, CH 2 97d-98a / Fifth Ennead, TR I, CH 10, 213d-214a
• 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK V, CH 11 216c-d; BK VII, CH 23, 256b-c; BK XII, CH 23, 357d / On Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 8 626c-627a
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 3, A 1; REP 2 14b-15b; Q 7, A 2, REP 2 31d-32c; Q 59, A 3, ANS 308b-309a; Q 76, A 5, REP 4 394c-396a; Q 78, A 1, ANS 407b-409a; A 4, ANS and REP 4-6 411d-413d; Q 79 413d-427a; Q 80, A 2 428a-d; Q 81, A 3 430c-431d; QQ 82-89 431d-480c; Q 96, A 2 511b-d; Q 118, A 2, ANS 601c-603b; PART I-II, Q 12, A 5 672a-c; Q 13, A 2 673c-674c; Q 15, A 2 682a-c; Q 17, A 2 687d-688b
• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 50, A 3, REP 2 8b-9a; AA 4-5 9a-10d
• 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVIII [19-75] 80a-c; XXV [34-84] 91d-92b
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 52b; 53a-b; 54a; 57d; 59b; 63a; PART II, 100a-c
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 119b-d; 184a-c
• 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT IV, SC IV [32-39] 59a
• 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 427d-428a
• 30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 35, 163d-164a
• 31 DESCARTES: Rules for the Direction of the Mind, XII, 19a-20d / Discourse on Method, PART I, 41b,d; PART IV, 51d-52a; PART V, 56a-b; 59c-60b / Meditations on First Philosophy, 71b-d; II 77d-81d / Objections and Replies, 156a-d; 209b-c; 226a-d
• 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART II, AXIOM 2 373d; PART III, PROP 57, SCHOL 415b
• 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK VII [499-528] 228a-b; BK VIII [369-451] 240a-242a; BK IX [549-566] 259b
• 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 339-349 233a-234a; 365 236a / On the Vacuum, 357a-358a
• 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, INTRO, SECT 1 93a-b; BK I, CH I, SECT 1 95b,d-96a; CH III, SECT 12 115b-116a; SECT 17 117a-c; SECT 23 119b-120a; SECT 25 120c-d; BK II, CH VI 131b-c; CH XI 143d-147b esp SECT 8-11 145b-146a; CH XXI, SECT 5-6 179c-180a; SECT 15-16 181c-182a; CH XXVII, SECT 12 223a-b; BK IV, CH XIV, SECT 3-4 364d-365a; CH XVII, SECT 1-3 371c-372b
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT VIII, DIV 62 478b-c
• 38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK I, 1d-2b
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 337d-338c; 349b-c / The Social Contract, BK I, 393b-c
• 39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK I, 6d-8b
• 41 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 150c
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 164a-165c; 199c-200c / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 264d-265a; 271c-d; 279b; 281c-282c; 284d-285a / The Critique of Practical Reason, 303b-d; 316c-317a / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 372a-b / The Critique of Judgement, 465c-467a esp 466a-c; 474b-475d; 479a-d; 522b; 568c-575b esp 568c-d, 570c-571c, 572b-575b; 584d-585c; 587d-588a; 602b,d [fn 1]
• 43 MILL: On Liberty, 294a-297b
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 4-5 116a-117a; 121 136c-d / The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156c; 168b-d; 186a; PART I, 257d-258a; PART III, 304d-305b
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 278a-b; 287a-b; 292a-294c; 296c-300a esp 297d-298a, 299b; 312a-313a; 319c; 331b-332a; 591d-592a
• 50 MARX: Capital, 85a-d
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 689c-690a
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 85a-b; 184a-187b esp 186a-187a; 664a-693b esp 664a-b, 677a-686b, 691a; 873a
• 54 FREUD: The Interpretation of Dreams, 363b-364b; 367b-c; 377c-379c esp 379a-b; 384c-385c / The Unconscious, 429c-d / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 532a

4d. The general theory of faculties: the critique of faculty psychology

• 8 ARISTOTLE: On the Soul, BK II, CH 2-3 643a-645b; CH 5 [417a21-418a6] 647d-648d; BK III, CH 9 664d-665c
• 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 1-2, 167a-b; CH 4 169a
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 77 399b-407a; Q 78, A 1 407b-409a; A 4, ANS 411d-413d; Q 83, A 2, REP 2 438a-d
• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 49, A 3, ANS and REP 2 4b-5a; A 4 5a-6a; Q 50, A 2 7c-8a; Q 54, A 1 22d-23d; Q 56, A 1, ANS 30a-c; Q 110, A 4 350d-351d
• 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, IV [1-18] 57c
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 49d-50b esp 50b; 54b
• 31 DESCARTES: Rules for the Direction of the Mind, XII, 18b-20d / Meditations on First Philosophy, IV 89a-93a; VI, 98d-99a; 101d-102a / Objections and Replies, 135b-c
• 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART II, PROP 48-49 391a-394d
• 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH I, SECT 1 95b,d-96a; CH III, SECT 12 115b-116a; SECT 17 117a-c; SECT 23 119b-120a; SECT 25 120c-d; BK II, CH XXI, SECT 6 179d-180a; SECT 15-20 181c-183a
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT I, DIV 8, 454b-c
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Judgement, 461a-475d esp 466a-c, 474b-475d
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 1a-2a; 17b-18b

5. The order and harmony of man’s powers and functions: contradictions in human nature; the higher and lower nature of man

• APOCRYPHA: Wisdom of Solomon, 9:15—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 9:15
• NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 5-8 esp 7:15-25 / Galatians, 4-5 / James, 4:1-3
• 7 PLATO: Phaedo, 231b-234c / Republic, BK IV, 350a-355a; BK IX, 421a-427b; BK X, 431b-434a / Timaeus, 466a-c / Laws, BK V, 686d-687c
• 9 ARISTOTLE: Nicomachean Ethics, BK I, CH 7 [1097b22-1098a17] 343a-c; BK VII, CH 6 [1150a15] 400c
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK II, CH 24 203c-210a; BK IV, CH 11 240d-242d
• 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 1 253a; BK III, SECT 6 261a-c; BK IV, SECT 27 266a; SECT 39 267a; BK V, SECT 26 272c; BK VII, SECT 13 280c; BK IX, SECT 1 291a-c; SECT 7-8 292b
• 17 PLOTINUS: Third Ennead, TR IV, CH 2 97d-98a / Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 18 166d-167b / Sixth Ennead, TR IV, CH 15, 304c-d
• 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK VIII, PAR 10-11, 55d; PAR 19-24 58b-60a; BK XIII, PAR 12 113b-d / City of God, BK XI, CH 26-28 336d-338d; BK XII, CH 3 361a-c; CH 15 366c-d
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 77, AA 4-7 403a-406b; Q 95, A 2 507c-508a; PART I-II, Q 13, A 1, ANS 672d-673c; Q 16, A 1 684b-d; Q 17, A 4 688d-689c
• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 82, A 1 168a-d; A 4, REP 1 170b-171a; Q 85, A 1, ANS 178b-179b; Q 91, A 6, ANS 212c-213c
• 22 CHAUCER: Manciple’s Tale [17,104-144] 490a-b
• 23 MACHIAVELLI: The Prince, CH XVIII, 25a
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 63a; 85b-86b esp 86b; PART II, 141a-b
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 105c-107a; 161a; 162b; 326b-327b; 381b-c
• 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT I, SC IV [23-38] 36a-b / Troilus and Cressida, ACT III, SC II [82-106] 121a-b / King Lear, ACT IV, SC II [38-50] 270d-271a / Macbeth, ACT IV, SC III [1-132] 303b-304d / Coriolanus, ACT IV, SC VII [28-57] 384c-d
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 20c-d
• 31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 207d-208a
• 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 106-117 193b-194b; 125-183 195b-204b; 396-424 240b-243b; 532 265a
• 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART IV, 151b-152a
• 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 198a-c; 205a-c
• 38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK I, 1d-2b
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 337d-338d
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 164a-165c / Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 282b-283d / The Critique of Practical Reason, 292a-293b; 316c-317a / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 385c-386b / The Critique of Judgement, 584d-585c; 587a-588a
• 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 55, 174c-d
• 43 MILL: Utilitarianism, 448a-450a
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART II, PAR 139 48d-49b / The Philosophy of History, PART III, 304b-306b
• 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [1110-1117] 27b-28a; [3217-3250] 79a-b
• 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 204b-205a
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 304a-305a; 316a-317a
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK VII, 304b-305a
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 1a-b; 188b-191a; 717a
• 54 FREUD: The Interpretation of Dreams, 377c-382a, esp 379c-d / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 590c-d; 592b-593b; 615c-616c esp 616b-c / Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 640b-d / Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 689d-690c / The Ego and the Id, 699a-c; 711b / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 746c-747b esp 747a / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 830a-832c; 834b-c

5a. Cooperation or conflict among man’s powers

• NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 5:29-30; 26:41 / Mark, 9:43-47; 14:38—(D) Mark, 9:42-46; 14:38 / Romans, 7:18-23 / Galatians, 5:16-26 / Ephesians, 4:17-18 / I Peter, 2:11
• 7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 128a-d / Republic, BK I, 308b-309b; BK III, 338a-339a; BK IV, 346a-355a; BK IX, 425c-427b / Timaeus, 453b-454a; 474b-d; 476a-b / Laws, BK I, 641a-b; 649d-650b
• 8 ARISTOTLE: On the Soul, BK III, CH 9-13 662d-668d
• 9 ARISTOTLE: Movement of Animals, CH 11 239a-d / Nicomachean Ethics, BK I, CH 7 [1098a3-7] 343b; CH 13 347b-348d; BK V, CH 11 [1138b5-13] 387a,c; BK IX, CH 4 [1166b12-24] 419d-420a / Politics, BK I, CH 5 [1254a33-b8] 448a
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 2-5 106d-110c; BK II, CH 2, 177c-178a; CH 15 190a-191a; CH 24 203c-210a; BK IV, CH 1 213a-223d
• 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 1 253a; BK IV, SECT 33 266c-d; BK VII, SECT 13 280c; SECT 55 283b-c; BK VIII, SECT 1 285a-b; SECT 39 288c; BK IX, SECT 1 291a-c; SECT 8 292b
• 17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 18 166d-167b / Sixth Ennead, TR IV, CH 15, 304c-d
• 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK VIII, PAR 10-11 55c-56b; PAR 19-27 58b-60c; BK X, PAR 39 81b-c; BK XIII, PAR 47, 123d-124a / City of God, BK XIII, CH 3, 361c; CH 15 366c-d; BK XIV, CH 5-10 379c-385d; BK XIX, CH 12-14 517b-520d; CH 21, 524c-525a / On Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 24 630c-631a
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 81, A 3 430c-431d; Q 84, A 3, ANS 443d-444d; Q 91, A 3, ANS and REP 1 486b-487d; Q 95, A 1, ANS 506b-507c; A 2 507c-508a; Q 96, A 2 511b-d: PART I-II, Q 37, A 1, ANS 783d-784c
• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 77, AA 1-2 145a-147c; QQ 82-83 168a-174b; PART II-II, Q 29, A 1, ANS 530b-531a; A 2 531a-d; PART III, Q 15, A 9, REP 3 794c-795b; PART III SUPPL, Q 96, A 11 1063d-1064d
• 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, IV [1-18] 57c
• 22 CHAUCER: Parson’s Tale, PAR 12, 503b
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, CONCLUSION, 279a-c
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 5a-6c; 36c-41a esp 39b-40a; 159a-162c; 274d-276a; 344a-347c; 405c-406a
• 26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard II 320a-351d esp ACT V, SC V [1-41] 349d-350a / Merchant of Venice, ACT I, SC III [11-24] 408b-c
• 27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello, ACT I, SC III [329-337] 212c
• 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 347c-d
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 72b; 78a-d
• 31 DESCARTES: Meditations on First Philosophy, I 75a-77c; IV 89a-93a esp 90b-91b; VI, 102d-103a / Objections and Replies, 155d-156a; 207d-208a; 209c
• 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART III, PROP 1-2 396a-398b; PART IV, PROP 7, COROL 426b; PROP 60 442d-443a
• 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK VIII [561-594] 244b-245a; BK XI [466-543] 309b-311a
• 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 125-131 195b; 411-413 242a
• 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 239b
• 38 ROUSSEAU: The Social Contract, BK I, 393b-c
• 40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 192b
• 42 KANT: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 282b-283d / Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 368d-369a / Introduction to the Metaphysic of Morals, 390b,d-394a,c / The Critique of Judgement, 509c-d
• 43 MILL: On Liberty, 293b-302c passim / Utilitarianism, 448a-450a
• 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., 135c-d; 455a
• 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [354-521] 11a-15a; [1110-1117] 27b-28a; [3217-3250] 79a-b
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 311a-314b esp 312a-313a, 313d-314b; 318d-319a
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 15a-b; BK VI, 235a-238c; BK XI, 554b-555c; BK XII, 577a-578b; BK XIV, 605b-d; BK XV, 630c-631a
• 52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK I, 39a-40a; BK III, 53b-54b; BK IV, 95b-100c; BK V, 127b-137c passim; BK VI, 164b-d
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 199b-204b esp 199b-200b; 717a-718a; 734b-735a; 799a-800a
• 54 FREUD: The Interpretation of Dreams, 370b; 379a-380d / On Narcissism, 407a-408a; 409d-410b / The Unconscious, 433c / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 589c-591a; 635b-c / The Ego and the Id, 702c-d; 704a-d; 708d-712a passim, esp 711c-d; 715b-716c / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 720a-722c esp 721d-722c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 785b [fn 1]; 787a-788b; 790a-791d; 797c-799a; 800d-801a / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 837d-839b

5b. Abnormalities due to defect or conflict of powers: feeble-mindedness, neuroses, insanity, madness

• 5 AESCHYLUS: Choephoroe [1021-1076] 80a-d
• 5 SOPHOCLES: Ajax 143a-155a,c esp [1-330] 143a-146a
• 5 EURIPIDES: Orestes 394a-410d esp [1-423] 394a-398b
• 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK III, 96b-98a
• 7 PLATO: Republic, BK IX, 416a-417b / Timaeus, 474b-d / Laws, BK VI, 712b
• 8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 8 [9b34-10a6] 15a
• 9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK IV, CH 10 [686b22-29] 218b-c / Nicomachean Ethics, BK III, CH 10 [1118a17-b7] 364d-365a; BK VII, CH 1 [1145a27-33] 395a-b; CH 3 [1147b10-19] 397b; CH 5 399a-d; CH 6 [1149b24-1150a8] 400b-c
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 5 110b-c; BK II, CH 15 155c-156b
• 12 AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 1 259b,d
• 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VII [323-405] 245a-247b
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 84, A 7, ANS 449b-450b; Q 115, A 5, REP 1 590d-591c; PART I-II, Q 6, A 7, REP 3 650a-d; Q 10, A 3, ANS and REP 2 664d-665c; Q 24, A 2 727d-728c; Q 28, A 3, ANS and REP 1 742a-d; Q 31, A 7 757c-758b; Q 37, A 4, REP 3 785d-786d
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 66d-67b; 68b-d; 69b-c
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 5a-6c; 10b-11b; 25c-26d; 36c-41a; 166a-167a; 235b-c; 274d-276a; 316b-c
• 26 SHAKESPEARE: Richard III 105a-148a,c
• 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT IV, SC V 59c-62a; ACT V, SC II [236-255] 70b-c / Othello, ACT IV, SC I [1-59] 229d-230b / King Lear, ACT IV, SC IV [1-19] 272b-c; SC VII [16-82] 276d-277c / Macbeth, ACT V, SC I 306b-307a; SC III [37-56] 308a-b
• 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 347c-d
• 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote esp PART I, 1a-3b, PART II, 205a-209d
• 31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 155d-156a
• 35 LOCKE: Of Civil Government, CH VI, SECT 60 37d-38a / An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH XI, SECT 12-13 146a-c; BK IV, CH IV, SECT 13-16 326d-328d esp SECT 13 326d-327a
• 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 109c
• 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., 13a-14a; 214b-c; 354c-355a
• 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [4405-4612] 110a-114b
• 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 122b-124a; 136a-b; 232a-236a; 380b-381a; 388b-389a
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 299c
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XI, 510b-d; 515a-517a; 524c-527a; BK XV, 616a-617a
• 52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK I, 21d-22b; BK XI, 337a-348d; BK XII, 364b-369a
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 23b-26b esp 25b-26b; 32a-34a; 35b-37a; 132a-137b esp 137a; 147b-149a; 241b-258b esp 242a, 244b, 251b-252a, 258a-b; 749a-750b; 753b-754b; 799b-807a; 818a-819a; 828b-829a
• 54 FREUD: The Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis, 7a-8b / Selected Papers on Hysteria, 35b-c; 52d-53c; 81d-86c; 97b-106c; 111a-115a / The Interpretation of Dreams, 176a-d; 328c; 364c-d; 370b-c; 380d-382a / On Narcissism, 409c-d / The Unconscious 433c / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 558a-c; 585b-623b esp 586a-592b, 593c-595b, 600b-c, 604c-606a, 616b-c, 623a-b; 624b-d; 627a-b; 635b-c / Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 690a-691c / The Ego and the Id, 713a-715a / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 721c; 722b-723d; 728b-731d passim; 746c-748a / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 812a; 830d-832a; 872a-d

6. Individual differences among men

6a. The cause and range of human inequalities: differences in ability, inclination, temperament, habit

• APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 33:10-15; 38:24-34—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 33:10-15; 38:25-39
• NEW TESTAMENT: Romans, 12:3-8 / I Corinthians, 12 / II Timothy, 2:20-21
• 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK XIII [723-734] 95d-96a / Odyssey, BK VIII [165-185] 223d-224a; BK XIV [199-232] 262b-c
• 5 SOPHOCLES: Ajax [1226-1263] 153c-154a
• 5 EURIPIDES: Rhesus [105-108] 204a / Electra [358-400] 330b-d / Heracles Mad [632-636] 370c / Iphigenia at Aulis [558-572] 429d-430a
• 5 ARISTOPHANES: Frogs [1482-1499] 581d-582a
• 6 THUCYDIDES: The Peloponnesian War, BK I, 370a-c; 383d-384a; BK III, 425b-c
• 7 PLATO: Euthydemus, 70c / Gorgias, 274a-275c / Republic, BK II, 316c-320c; BK III, 329c-330a; 339b-341a; BK V, 357b-360d; BK VI, 373c-375b; 383c-d; BK VIII, 404a-405c; BK IX, 421a-c / Theaetetus, 540c-541a / Statesman, 605d-608a / Laws, BK VI, 699d-700b; 704a-c / Seventh Letter, 809c-810d esp 810c
• 8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 8 [8b25-9a13] 13d-14a; [9b9-10a10] 14c-15a / Posterior Analytics, BK I, CH 34 122c / On Memory and Reminiscence, CH 1 [449b3-9] 690a; [450a25-b12] 691a-c
• 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK VIII, CH 1 [582a5-16] 107c-d; CH 2 [583a4-14] 108c / Parts of Animals, BK IV, CH 10 [686b22-29] 218b-c / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 18 [725b25-726b] 266a; BK IV, CH 3 [767b35-769a10] 308d-311b / Nicomachean Ethics, BK III, CH 5 359c-361a passim, esp [1114a32-b25] 360c-d; BK VI, CH 13 [1144b1-14] 394b; BK VII, CH 7 400d-401c / Politics, BK I, CH 5-6 447d-449b; BK III, CH 13 481b-483a; CH 17 486c-487a; BK V, CH 12 [1316a1-10] 518d-519a / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 6 [1363a1-3] 604c; CH 9 [1367b32-a8] 610a-b; CH 10 [1369a5-28] 612b-c; CH 12 [1372a8-1373a17] 616b-617a; CH 15 [1377a6-8] 621d; BK II, CH 2 [1378b28-1379a3] 623d-624a; CH 5 [1382b19-22] 628d; CH 16-17 638b-639a; BK III, CH 7 [1408a27-33] 659b-c
• 10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, PAR 3-7 9c-12a; PAR 10 13b-14a; PAR 12-24 14b-19a,c / Epidemics, BK II, SECT III, PAR 14 59b / On the Sacred Disease, 155d-156a
• 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK III [231-322] 33a-34b
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 2-3 106d-108c; CH 5, 110b; BK II, CH 15, 156a-b; BK III, CH 6, 182a-b; CH 24, 203c-206a
• 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK XI [243-295] 334b-336a
• 14 PLUTARCH: Pompey, 512c-d
• 17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR III, CH 1-3 10a-11a / Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 17, 166d / Fifth Ennead, TR IX, CH 2 246c-d
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 85, A 7 459c-460b; Q 96, AA 3-4 512a-513c; Q 113, A 2, REP 3 576d-577d; PART I-II, Q 46, A 5, ANS 815d-816d
• 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, VII [121-123] 64a; PARADISE, VIII [91-148] 117d-118c
• 22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK II, STANZA 5-7 22a-b / Tale of Wife of Bath [6691-6788] 274b-276a / Clerk’s Tale [8269-8317] 302b-303a / Parson’s Tale, PAR 27-28, 514b-515a
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 60a-61a; 61c-d; 66d-67a; 67d-68c; 71a; 84c-d; 94b-c; PART II, 112d; 154a
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 17c-18c; 60a-c; 63d-64b; 71d-72b; 126b-127c; 150b-151a; 240a-c; 264b-265a; 279b-c; 310d-312a; 317b-c; 367b-368a; 451a-c; 491d-493a; 513a-514a
• 26 SHAKESPEARE: Merchant of Venice, ACT I, SC I [1-104] 406a-407b; SC II [39-133] 408c-409b; ACT IV, SC I [40-62] 426a / 1 Henry IV, ACT I, SC III [1-21] 437d-438a; ACT III, SC I [165-191] 451d-452a; SC III [93-161] 453d-454c / 2 Henry IV, ACT IV, SC III [92-135] 492b-c / Much Ado About Nothing, ACT I, SC III [1-41] 506d-507a; ACT III, SC I [47-116] 514d-515c / Julius Caesar, ACT I, SC II [33-47] 569d; [97-161] 570b-571a; [192-214] 571b-c; SC III [89-111] 573c-d; ACT IV, SC I [1-40] 587a-c; SC III [1-123] 588b-589c; ACT V, SC V [68-75] 596a,c / As You Like It, ACT IV, SC I [1-20] 617a-b
• 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT I, SC II [66-86] 32b; ACT III, SC III [307-324] 43d; ACT IV, SC IV [31-66] 59a-c / Troilus and Cressida, ACT I, SC II [19-31] 105b; [201-270] 106d-107c / Macbeth, ACT III, SC I [92-108] 295d-296a / Antony and Cleopatra, ACT II, SC II [10-39] 321c-d; ACT V, SC II [76-100] 347a-b / Cymbeline, ACT IV, SC II [2-5] 472c
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 76a-78a / Novum Organum, BK I, APH 42 109d; APH 53-58 111c-112b
• 31 DESCARTES: Discourse on Method, PART I, 41b,d / Meditations on First Philosophy, 70b-d
• 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 7 173a; 97 190b
• 35 LOCKE: Of Civil Government, CH VI, SECT 54 36c / An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH X, SECT 8 142d-143a; CH XI, SECT 2 144a-c; BK III, CH VI, SECT 26-27 274d-276a
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT VIII, DIV 66 480b-c; SECT IX, DIV 84, 488b,d [fn 1]
• 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 191b-192b; 269b-273a
• 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 274a-b
• 38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK I, 2b-d passim; BK VIII, 52a; BK XIV, 102b,d-104a; BK XV, 111a-b
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality 323a-366d esp 329a-334a,c, 347a-b, 348b,d-363a,c / The Social Contract, BK I, 387b,d-390d esp 388b-c; 394d; BK III, 411c-412c
• 39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK I, 7d-8a; 54d-55b; 71b-d; BK V, 340c-343d
• 40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 343c-d
• 41 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 31b,d-32a
• 42 KANT: The Critique of Judgement, 525c-532a esp 526a-d, 528c-530c; 586a-587a
• 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 10, 50b-c
• 43 MILL: On Liberty, 293b-302c passim / Representative Government, 336b-c; 346c-348c; 384a-387d / Utilitarianism, 448a-449c; 472d-473a
• 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., 8a-c; 110d; 124d-125d; 145d-146a; 283c; 413c-d
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 200 67c-68a; ADDITIONS, 126 137a-b / The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 166b-168a; 184b-d; 196d-199d; PART I, 222d; 250a-c; PART III, 289b-d
• 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [1064-1141] 26b-28a
• 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 54b-55a; 59a-60b; 83a-88b; 107a-b; 117a-131a; 137b-138a; 317a-321a; 417b-418a
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 266a-271a
• 50 MARX: Capital, 25c-d
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 15a-b; 53c-d; BK V, 215b-c; BK VIII, 278c; 281a-d; 283d-284a; BK IX, 349d; BK XI, 480a-482b; BK XII, 576a-b; 578b; BK XV, 632d-633a
• 52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov esp BK I 1a-15a,c, BK II, 18b-21b, 32d-37b, 38d-40b, 41c-45d, BK III, 53c-62a, 63d-64c, BK IV, 91c-92b, 95b-100c, 105c-107a, BK V, 109a-114b, BK VII, 180a-189a, BK X, 272a-274d, BK XI, 368a-c, BK XII, 370b-372d, 373c-374b, 376b-d, 380d-382b, 393a-c, 395d-396a, EPILOGUE, 402a-404c
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 14b-15a; 197b-198a; 201b-202a; 274a-275a; 315a-b; 345b; 381a; 431b-432a; 448a-b; 484a-496b; 686b-690a; 691a-b; 692b-693a; 759b-760b; 795b; 797a; 798b-801a; 826a-827a; 856b-858a
• 54 FREUD: The Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis, 18c-d / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 594d-595b; 600b-c / Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 681b / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 744b-745b / Thoughts for the Times on War and Death, 758d-759c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 775c-776a; 787d-788b [fn 3]

6b. The differences between men and women: their equality or inequality

• OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:26-30; 2:18-25; 3:16; 5:1-2
• NEW TESTAMENT: I Corinthians, 11:1-16; 14:34-35 / Galatians, 3:28 / Ephesians, 5:22-33 / Colossians, 3:18-19 / I Timothy, 2:9-15 / I Peter, 3:1-7
• 5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [181-202] 29a-b
• 5 EURIPIDES: Medea [263-266] 214b; [401-430] 215c-a; [1086-1092] 221b / Andromache [269-273] 317c-d; [929-953] 323a-b / Hecuba [1177-1186] 362d-363a / Phoenician Maidens [193-201] 379d / Iphigenia Among the Tauri [1052-1066] 420c / Iphigenia at Aulis [558-572] 429d-430a
• 5 ARISTOPHANES: Lysistrata 583a-599a,c / Thesmophoriazusae [785-847] 609b-610b / Ecclesiazusae 615a-628d
• 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK III, 56c; BK IV, 153a-b; BK VIII, 275b; BK IX, 311a-b
• 7 PLATO: Cratylus, 89d-90a / Symposium, 157b-158b / Meno, 174d-175c / Apology, 208d-209a / Republic, BK V, 357b-360d; BK VIII, 401b-c / Timaeus, 442d; 452d-453a; 476b-d / Critias, 480a / Laws, BK VI, 711b-d; BK VII, 720d-721a; 721d-722d; BK VIII, 734a-735a
• 8 ARISTOTLE: Metaphysics, BK X, CH 9 586a-c
• 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK I, CH 7 [491b3-5] 13a; BK II, CH 3 [501b20-22] 24a; BK III, CH 20 [522a12-22] 47a-b; BK IV, CH 11 [538a22-b15] 64d-65a,c; BK V, CH 8 [542a32-33] 69a; CH 14 [545a26-30] 72c; BK VIII, CH 3 [583b14-29] 109b-c; BK IX, CH 1 [608a21-b20] 133b,d-134a / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 19-20 266c-269c; BK IV, CH 6 [775a5-27] 317a-b; BK V, CH 3 [783b8-784a10] 325c-326a / Nicomachean Ethics, BK VII, CH 7 [1150b1-4] 401a-b; [1150b12-16] 401b; BK VIII, CH 7 [1158b12-29] 410c-d; CH 10 [1160b32-1161a2] 413a-b; CH 11 [1161a23-24] 413c; CH 12 [1162a15-29] 414c-d / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1252a26-b9] 445c-d; CH 5 [1254b13-15] 448b; CH 12 453d-454a; CH 13 [1259b29-1260a31] 454b-d; BK II, CH 9 [1264b1-7] 459d / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 5 [1360b38-1361a12] 601b-c; CH 9 [1367a17-18] 609d; BK III, CH 7 [1408a27-29] 659b-c / Poetics, CH 15 [1454a15-24] 689a-b
• 10 HIPPOCRATES: Aphorisms, SECT VII, PAR 43 142d
• 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK V [1350-1360] 78c-d
• 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 16, 122b-c
• 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK IV [554-570] 182b-183a
• 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus-Numa, 62d-63c
• 15 TACITUS: Annals, BK III, 53a-b / Histories, BK IV, 285d-286a
• 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK XIII, PAR 47, 123d-124a / City of God, BK XIII, CH 21 357a-b; BK XIX, CH 14, 520c-d; BK XXII, CH 17 603a-c
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 92 488d-491d; Q 93, A 4, REP 1 494c-495b; A 6, REP 2 496b-498a; Q 96, A 3, ANS 512a-c; Q 99, A 2 520a-d; Q 115, A 3, REP 4 588c-589c
• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 81, A 3 966a-c
• 22 CHAUCER: Wife of Bath’s Prologue 256a-270a / Tale of Wife of Bath 270a-277a esp [6612-6627] 273a-b / Clerk’s Tale [8808-8814] 312b / Merchant’s Tale [10,110-164] 335b-336a / Tale of Melibeus, PAR 14-16 405a-407b / Nun’s Priest’s Tale [15,258-272] 457a
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 109c-110a
• 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III, 159b-d; 164d-165c; 191c-193c; 195a-196b
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 84a-b; 188c-191c; 399c-d; 406a-434d passim
• 26 SHAKESPEARE: 3 Henry VI, ACT I, SC IV [128-142] 75d-76a / Comedy of Errors, ACT II, SC I 152a-153b / 1 Henry IV, ACT II, SC III [105-115] 444b / Julius Caesar, ACT II, SC I [261-309] 577b-c; SC IV 579d-580b
• 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT III, SC I [122-157] 48b-c / Troilus and Cressida, ACT V, SC II [107-112] 136a / All’s Well That Ends Well, ACT I, SC II [62-94] 146b-c / Othello, ACT II, SC I [101-167] 214c-215a; ACT III, SC IV [103-106] 228c; ACT IV, SC III [60-108] 236c-237a / King Lear, ACT IV, SC II [59-68] 271a-b; SC VI [109-135] 274c-d / Cymbeline, ACT II, SC V 463a-c; ACT III, SC IV [19-35] 466d-467a; [156-168] 468b-c / Sonnets, XX 589b
• 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 123c-124a
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 84b-c
• 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK IV [288-301] 158b-159a; [440-502] 162a-163a; [634-658] 166a-b; BK VIII [452-594] 242a-245a; BK X [144-156] 277b; [867-936] 293b-294b / Samson Agonistes [210-214] 344a; [871-902] 358b-359a; [997-1060] 361b-362b
• 35 LOCKE: Of Civil Government, CH VII, SECT 82 43b
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT VIII, DIV 66, 480b
• 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART I, 29b-31a; PART III, 98b-99a; PART IV, 163a; 166b
• 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 30a-32a esp 30d-31a; 100b-102a; 120c-121a,c; 126d-127b; 203b; 219a-b; 219d-220a; 235b-238d; 283b-c
• 38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK VII, 47c; 50d; BK XVI, 116a-c; BK XXIII, 189d-190a; BK XXVI, 217d-218a
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 346a / A Discourse on Political Economy, 367d-368a
• 40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 92d-93b
• 42 KANT: The Science of Right, 404d; 419c-420a; 436d-437c
• 43 CONSTITUTION OF THE U.S.: AMENDMENTS, XIX 19d
• 43 MILL: On Liberty, 311a-312a; 317c-d / Representative Government, 387d-389b
• 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., 132a; 165b-c; 312a; 312c; 391c-392a; 537a-c
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 165-166 59d-60a; ADDITIONS, 104 133d; 106-107 134a-b / The Philosophy of History, PART I, 222d
• 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [3522-3535] 86a; [3978-3985] 97a; PART II [9127-9134] 222a
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 257c; 264d-265a; 372d-373c; 383b-384d; 562a-567c esp 566a-567b; 584c-585d; 588d-589a
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 51d; BK IV, 184b; BK VI, 263b-264b; BK VII, 287a-b; BK XI, 488b-c; BK XII, 543b-544a; BK XV, 639a-b; EPILOGUE I, 659b; 660d-661b
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 691b-692a; 720a; 887b [fn 3]
• 54 FREUD: On Narcissism, 405b-406a / The Ego and the Id, 705a-706a; 707d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 785a [fn 1] / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 853b-864a esp 854a-855a, 862a-863c

6c. The ages of man: infancy, youth, maturity, senescence

• OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 17:15-19; 18:9-15; 21:1-8; 27:1 / Deuteronomy, 34:7 / I Kings, 1:1-4—(D) III Kings, 1:1-4 / Job, 32:6-9 / Proverbs, 20:29 / Isaiah, 65:20—(D) Isaias, 65:20
• APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 14:17-18—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 14:18-19
• NEW TESTAMENT: John, 21:18 / I Corinthians, 13:11
• 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK XXIII [448-499] 165d-166b; [566-649] 167a-168a; [785-792] 169c; BK XXIV 171a-179d esp [349-551] 175a-177a
• 5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [71-82] 52d
• 5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [1211-1248] 125b-c / Antigone [631-767] 136c-137d / Philoctetes [96-99] 183a
• 5 EURIPIDES: Alcestis [629-705] 242c-243a
• 5 ARISTOPHANES: Acharnians [676-718] 463a-c
• 7 PLATO: Laches, 31c / Symposium, 166a / Meno, 174b-175c / Republic, BK I, 295d-297b; BK III, 320c-321d; BK IV, 353b-d; BK VI, 380d-381a; BK VII, 398c-401d / Timaeus, 471d-472a / Theaetetus, 514b-c / Laws, BK II, 653b-c; 655b-656c; 659c-d; BK VII, 713d-714a; 723c-d; BK XII, 796a-d / Seventh Letter, 802b
• 8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK III, CH 2 [117a26-34] 164a / Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [247b13-248b] 330c-d / On the Soul, BK I, CH 4 [408b18-29] 638c / On Memory and Reminiscence, CH 1 [450a26-b9] 691a-b
• 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK III, CH 1 [500b25-501a4] 23a-b; CH 4 24a-b; BK III, CH 11 [518a6-b29] 42c-43c; BK IV, CH 9 [536b5-8] 63a-b; CH 10 [537b14-20] 64b; BK V, CH 14 [544b13-27] 71b-c; [545a26-30] 72c; BK VII, CH 1 106b,d-108a; CH 5 [585a33]-CH 6 [585b29] 111b-d; CH 10 [587b5-18] 113d-114a; BK VIII, CH 1 [588a24-b5] 114b,d / Parts of Animals, BK IV, CH 10 [686b5-30] 218a-c / Gait of Animals, CH 11 [710b12-18] 248d / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 18 [725b18-25] 265d-266a; CH 19 [727a2-10] 267a-b; BK IV, CH 2 [766a27-34] 308b; CH 6 [775a9-28] 317a-b; CH 8 [776b15-28] 318d-319a; BK V, CH 1 [778b20-779a13] 321a-d; [780b14-a10] 322b-d; CH 3 [781b30-782a20] 324a-b; CH 3 [783b2]-CH 4 [785a7] 325c-327a / Nicomachean Ethics, BK I, CH 3 [1094b29-1095a12] 340a-b; CH 9 [1099b33-1100a9] 345b-c; BK III, CH 12 [1119a34-b19] 366a,c; BK VI, CH 8 [1142a12-19] 391b; BK X, CH 3 [1174a1-4] 428b / Politics, BK I, CH 13 [1259b29-1260a33] 454b-455a; BK VII, CH 14 [1332b36-41] 537c-d; BK VIII, CH 7 [1342b18-33] 548c / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 5 [1361b6-15] 602a-b; BK II, CH 12-14 636a-638a
• 10 HIPPOCRATES: On Injuries of the Head, PAR 18 69a-b / Aphorisms, SECT I, PAR 13-14 131d; SECT II, PAR 39 133c; PAR 53 133d; SECT III, PAR 3 134a; PAR 18 134d; PAR 24-31 135a-b; SECT VI, PAR 6 140c; PAR 29-30 141a; PAR 57 141d; SECT VII, PAR 82 144a / On the Sacred Disease, 157b-158b
• 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK III [445-458] 35d-36a; BK IV [1037-1057] 57d; BK V [222-234] 64a
• 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VIII [152-174] 263a-b: [510-520] 272b-273a
• 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK I, PAR 7-13 2c-4c; PAR 30-31 8b-9a / City of God, BK XXII, CH 16 573b-574a
• 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 77, A 8, REP 3 406b-407a; Q 96, A 3, ANS 512a-c; PART I-II, Q 34, A 1, REP 2 768c-769d; Q 40, A 5, REP 2 795d-796c; A 6 796c-797a
• 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 94, A 1, REP TO CONTRARY 221a-d; PART III SUPPL, Q 70, A 1, REP 7 893d-895d
• 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVI [85-105] 77d
• 22 CHAUCER: Reeve’s Prologue [3862-3896] 224a-b
• 23 MACHIAVELLI: The Prince, CH XXV, 36b
• 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 53d; 60b; 78b-c
• 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK I, 14c-19a
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 43a-c; 63d-64b; 72b-c; 74b; 156d-158a,c; 185d-188d; 339a-d; 394a-395b; 406a-408b; 432d-434a; 535c-536a
• 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1 Henry VI, ACT II, SC V [1-16] 12d-13a / 2 Henry VI, ACT V, SC I [161-174] 66d / 2 Henry IV, ACT III, SC II [321-369] 486d-487a / Henry V, ACT I, SC I [22-69] 533b-c / As You Like It, ACT II, SC VII [137-166] 608d-609a
• 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT II, SC II [197-209] 42c-d / Troilus and Cressida, ACT II, SC III [163-173] 115b / King Lear 244a-283a,c esp ACT I, SC I [291-312] 247c-d, SC II [48-53] 248b-c, [75-79] 248c-d, SC III [12-21] 249d-250b, SC IV [258-344] 252c-253c, ACT II, SC IV [148-158] 260a, ACT IV, SC VII 276c-277d / Macbeth, ACT V, SC III [20-28] 307d
• 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 450a-b
• 30 BACON: Advancement of Learning, 70b-c
• 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK XI [527-543] 310b-311a
• 35 LOCKE: Of Civil Government, CH VI 36a-42a passim
• 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT VIII, DIV 66, 480b
• 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART III, 127a-128a
• 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 352b-353b
• 38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK XXIII, 188a
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 336a-b / The Social Contract, BK I, 387d-388a; BK III, 402d
• 39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK V, 309d-310a
• 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 79, 234c-d
• 43 MILL: On Liberty, 271d-272a
• 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., 8b; 55c-56a; 126d; 128b; 146b-d; 360b; 381a; 407d-408a; 422c
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 169d; 187d-188b; 203d-206a,c; PART I, 222d; 257c-d; PART II, 259a-b
• 47 GOETHE: Faust, PRELUDE I [184-213] 5a-b; PART I [2337-2365] 56b-57a; [4076-4087] 99b; PART II [6685-6818] 164a-166b; [10331-344] 251b-252a
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 297b; 562c-563a
• 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK III, 132b-c; 153d-154b; BK IV, 168d-169b; 171c-d; BK V, 206d-207b; BK VIII, 305b-310d passim; BK X, 391d-394d; 400c-401d; BK XII, 559d; BK XIII, 584c; EPILOGUE I, 659d-660b
• 52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK I, 7a-8d; BK V, 117c-127b; BK VI, 167c-168a; BK X 272a-297d; EPILOGUE, 411b-412d
• 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 206b-207a; 242a; 270a; 409a-b; 413b [fn 2]; 431b-433a; 649b-650a; 711b-717a
• 54 FREUD: The Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis, 15a-16c; 17b-18a / The Sexual Enlightenment of Children 119a-122a,c passim / The Interpretation of Dreams, 191b-193a; 238b-246b passim, esp 238c-239a, 241b-c, 243a-c / On Narcissism, 400a-b; 406b-407c; 410b / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 495a-496b; 526d-527b; 528d-531d; 572d-576d; 579b-584d; 592c; 594d-599d; 612d-614b / Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 641d-643c esp 643b-c; 644d-645a; 651b-c / Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego, 685b-686a; 693a-c / The Ego and the Id, 704d-706c / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 725d-726a; 738b-740c; 743a-744a; 746c-747a; 751d-753c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 768b-d / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 855b-863c esp 855d-858d, 860b-861c; 869a-870c

7. Group variations in human type: racial differences

7a. Biological aspects of racial type

• 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK II, 69b-d; BK III, 91b-c; 113d; 114a-b; BK IV, 128a-c; 131b-c; 143b-c
• 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK III, CH 9 [517a12-20] 41c; CH 22 [523a17-19] 48c; BK VIII, CH 4 [584b8-15] 110b / Generation of Animals, BK II, CH 2 [736a9-13] 276d; BK V, CH 3 [782b30-783a2] 324d-325a
• 10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, PAR 3-7 9c-12a; PAR 12-15 14b-15c; PAR 19-24 16c-19a,c
• 26 SHAKESPEARE: Titus Andronicus, ACT IV, SC II [51-127] 188b-189a; ACT V, SC I [20-53] 192c-d
• 27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello, ACT I, SC II [62-81] 208b-c; SC III [94-106] 210a
• 38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK XIV, 102b,d-104c
• 40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 546d
• 41 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 49d
• 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D., 113a
• 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, PART IV, 352a-353a
• 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 304a-305a
• 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 342a-359d esp 348c-350b, 356a-359d; 562d-565a passim; 573d-576d; 578a-589d esp 583b-584d, 586a, 589c-d; 591a-c

7b. The influence of environmental factors on human characteristics: climate and geography as determinants of racial or national differences

• 6 HERODOTUS: History, BK I, 31d-32a; BK III, 91b-c; BK IX, 314a,c
• 7 PLATO: Laws, BK V, 696d
• 9 ARISTOTLE: Politics, BK VII, CH 7 [1327b19-38] 531d-532a
• 10 HIPPOCRATES: Airs, Waters, Places, PAR 3-7 9c-12a; PAR 12-13 14b-15a; PAR 15-16 15b-16a; PAR 19-21 16c-17b; PAR 23-24 18a-19a,c
• 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK VI [1106-1113] 94d-95a
• 14 PLUTARCH: Solon, 72d / Pompey, 512c-d
• 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 279b-c
• 26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT III, SC V 547a-c
• 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART II, 79a-80a; PART IV, 168a-b
• 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 203a-204a; 224a-b; 295b-296b
• 38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK XIV 102b,d-108d; BK XV, 111a-b; BK XVI, 116a-120a; BK XVII, 122a-124d passim; BK XVIII, 125a-129c; BK XXI, 153a-154a; BK XX, 190c-d
• 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 349a / The Social Contract, BK III, 415b-417c
• 39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 291a-c
• 40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 45d; 87d-88a; 397c-398a; 409d