Chapter 48: LIFE AND DEATH

INTRODUCTION

Men have divided the totality of things in various ways. The three most fundamental divisions rest on the distinction between the natural and the supernatural, between the material and the spiritual, and between the lifeless and the living.

The same kind of basic question is raised by each of these divisions, and given opposite answers in the tradition of the great books. The question is not always formulated in the same way. It may be a question about the existence of the supernatural order or of incorporeal beings. It may be a problem of whether the terms of the division represent a real duality or merely different aspects of one and the same whole. Are God and nature one or are they radically distinct? Is spirituality merely one expression of bodily existence, or are there two worlds, a world of bodies and a world of spirits?

These issues are considered in the chapters on GOD, NATURE, ANGEL, and MATTER, as well as in the chapter on BEING. The issue raised by the third great division is one of the central topics in this chapter. That issue concerns the difference between the living and the non-living. There is no question here about whether, in the order of nature, living things exist. The fact of life is not denied, at least not as a matter of observation. On the surface there certainly appears to be a striking difference between the living tree and the stone, or between the animal which a moment ago was alive and is now dead.

But how this difference is to be understood is the question. Does it signify an absolute break, a discontinuity, between the world of living bodies and the domain of inanimate things? Or is the continuity of nature preserved across the line which divides inorganic and organic matter? Is the difference between the non-living and the living (or the living and the dead) one of kind or of degree?

Those who answer that it is a difference in kind usually formulate a definition of life which draws a sharp line, on one side of which are the things that have the indispensable properties of life, while on the other side are things totally lacking in these properties. The critical point here turns on whether vitality is present in some degree or totally absent. The definition of life may not always be the same. It may not always, for example, postulate the soul as the principle in all living things, or involve the same conception of soul in relation to living organisms. But when life is defined as an essential characteristic of some natures, the definition implies the existence of natures which are totally lacking in the properties essential to life. It also implies the impossibility of intermediate links between the lowest form of life and the most complex of the inorganic substances.

The opposite answer that there is only a difference in degree between the inanimate and the animate, affirms the continuity of nature across the gap between things which appear lifeless and those which seem to be alive. All bodies have the same fundamental properties, though not in the same magnitude. But here there is a further question. It can be asked whether those properties are the powers or functions commonly associated with the appearance of being alive, such as growth, reproduction, sensitivity, desire, locomotion; or whether they are the mechanical properties of matter in motion—properties which vary only with the degrees of complexity in the organization of matter.

According to the doctrine which is sometimes called “animism” and sometimes “panpsychism,” everything is alive, every body is besouled, though at the lower end of the scale the signs of vitality remain hidden from ordinary observation. Although this theory is usually attributed to a primitive view of nature, it appears in a subtle form in certain philosophical developments which make soul or mind a principle as universal as matter. “There is one common substance,” says Marcus Aurelius, “though it is distributed among countless bodies which have their several qualities. There is one soul, though it is distributed among infinite natures and individual circumscriptions.”

The doctrine which in modern times is called “mechanism” conceives the continuity of nature in terms of the universality of purely mechanical principles. It reduces all phenomena to the interaction of moving parts or particles. No new principle is needed to explain the phenomena of life. The laws of physics and chemistry suffice. Biophysics and biochemistry simply deal with the mechanics of more complex material systems. The apparent differences in function between “living” and “non-living” things represent the same functions. They are altered only in appearance by the more complex organization of the matter which is called “living.”

The controversy over mechanistic principles in the analysis of life arose with great explicitness in the latter part of the nineteenth century and continues to our own day. The chief opponents of the mechanists are those who at one time called themselves “vitalists” to signify their insistence upon an essential difference between vital and mechanical phenomena. The work of Jacques Loeb can be taken to represent the mechanistic side of this controversy; the writings of Bergson, Haldane, Whitehead, the vitalist position.

Those who regard the realm of living things as a distinct domain in nature also think that the study of living things has special concepts, principles, and methods as different from those of physics and chemistry as the objects studied are distinct.

Biology is a science of ancient origin. The Hippocratic collection of writings on health and disease, the extensive biological researches of Aristotle, the work of Galen, represent more than a bare beginning of the science. The ancient classification of vital functions establishes the terms of biological analysis. Ideas which have come to seem obvious because of traditional acceptance were once great discoveries; for example, that all living bodies nourish themselves, grow, and reproduce; that these are the minimal, not the maximal, functions of organic matter; that there is a regular cycle of growth and decay in the normal life span which is itself different for different types of organisms; that in the dynamic equilibrium between the living organism and its physical environment, the organism actively maintains itself through a certain balance of exchanges in the biological economy, of which breathing is a prime example.

The great books of biological science from Aristotle to Harvey seem to be of one mind on the point that living matter possesses distinctive powers and performs functions which are not present in any degree in the realm of the inert or inorganic. For the most part they reflect the theory that the living body possesses a soul which is the principle of its vitality and the source of the vital powers embodied in its various organs.

In ancient and mediaeval theory, the soul is not conceived as belonging peculiarly to man; it is not identified with mind or with the intellectual faculties. The word “animal” derives from the Latin name for soul—the principle of animation. It is true that Galen distinguishes between what he calls the “natural” and the “psychic” faculties. The latter for him are the powers of sensitivity, desire, and locomotion. Yet his analysis of the vegetative powers of nutrition, growth, and reproduction which are common to plants and animals squares with Aristotle’s conception of the vegetative soul.

“What has soul in it,” Aristotle writes, “differs from what has not, in that the former displays life. Now this word has more than one sense. … Living, that is, may mean thinking or perception or local movement and rest, or movement in the sense of nutrition, decay, and growth. Hence we think of plants also as living, for they are observed to possess in themselves an originative power through which they increase and decrease in all spatial directions. This power of self-nutrition … is the originative power, the possession of which leads us to speak of things as living.”

In the great books the opposite position with respect to the living and non-living seems to appear for the first time with Descartes. It might be supposed that Lucretius, since he denies the soul as an immaterial principle, would also tend to reject anything except a difference in degree between animate and inanimate bodies. But this is not the case. According to Lucretius living things are not merely more complex combinations of atoms and void. Their constitution includes a special type of soul-atom, whose round, smooth shape and speed of movement through all parts of the living body accounts for the powers and activities which are peculiar to that body. Lucretius is recognized as a materialist and a mechanist, yet he sharply separates living from non-living bodies and appeals to a special principle—the soul-atom—to explain this difference in kind.

As appears in the chapters on MIND and SOUL, Descartes is at variance not only with Lucretius but also with Aristotle, Galen, and Plotinus in his conception of the soul and of life. The soul is not a body or composed of bodies. Neither, in his opinion, is it an immaterial principle conjoined with organic matter to constitute the living body. It is itself an immaterial substance, quite separate from the human body to which it is allied.

Descartes tells us how he passed from “a description of inanimate bodies and plants… to that of animals, and particularly to that of men.” He asks us to consider the supposition that “God formed the body of man altogether like one of ours… without making use of any matter other than that which I have described and without at first placing in it a rational soul or any other thing which might serve as a vegetative or sensitive soul.” He then goes on to say that “examining the functions which might in accordance with this supposition exist in this body, I found precisely all those which might exist in us without our having the power of thought, and consequently without our soul—that is to say, this part of us, distinct from the body, of which it has been said that its nature is to think.”

The mechanistic implications of his supposition are explicitly developed by Descartes in his consideration of Harvey’s discovery of the motions of the heart and blood. These movements, he says, follow “as necessarily from the very disposition of the organs… as does that of a clock from the power, the situation, and the form, of its counterpoise and of its wheels.” In these motions, as well as in the actions of the nerves, brain, and muscles, it is not necessary to suppose any other cause than those operating “according to the laws of Mechanics which are identical with those of nature.”

This will not seem strange, Descartes adds, to those who know “how many different automata or moving machines can be made by the industry of man, without employing in so doing more than a very few parts in comparison with the great multitude of bones, muscles, nerves, arteries, veins or other parts that are found in the body of each animal. From this aspect, the body is regarded as a machine, which, having been made by the hands of God, is incomparably better arranged, and possesses in itself movements which are much more admirable, than any of those which can be invented by man.” Only the functions of reason, only the acts of thinking—not those of living—operate under other than the mechanical laws of corporeal nature. Whether living or not, all bodies without reason or a rational soul are automata or machines. Whatever they do can be explained as a kind of clockwork—by the disposition and interaction of their parts.

Another source and another version of the view that the continuity of nature is uninterrupted, comes from the theory of evolution. Darwin himself, in his brief consideration of the origin of life, deals mainly with the alternative hypotheses of the divine creation of a single original form or of several primitive forms from which the whole of the plant and animal kingdoms has developed by the natural steps of evolution. He rejects the division of the animate world into more than the two great kingdoms of plant and animal life, and holds that man differs from other animals only in degree, not in kind.

As indicated in the chapters on ANIMAL and EVOLUTION, Darwin questions the discontinuity between plants and animals. He refers to the intermediate forms which seem to belong to both kingdoms. He suggests the possibility that the lowest forms of animal life may have developed by natural evolutionary descent from plant organisms. But he does not seriously consider the hypothesis of an evolutionary transition from inorganic matter to living organisms. Here, on the contrary, he seems to recognize a difference in kind. “The most humble organism,” he writes, “is something much higher than the inorganic dust under our feet; and no one with an unbiased mind can study any living creature, however humble, without being struck with enthusiasm at its marvellous structure and properties.” He questions the notion that living organisms might have originated from inorganic matter by spontaneous generation. “Science has not as yet proved the truth of this belief,” he says, “whatever the future may reveal.”

Nevertheless, with the extension of Darwin’s theory of the origin of species into a doctrine of cosmic evolution, what James calls “the evolutionary afflatus” leads writers like Tyndall and Spencer to “talk as if mind grew out of body in a continuous way. … So strong a postulate is continuity,” James writes, that the evolutionists try to “leap over the breach” between inorganic matter and consciousness.

“In a general theory of evolution,” he explains, “the inorganic comes first, then the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life, then forms of life that possess mentality, and finally those like ourselves that possess it in a high degree. … We are dealing all the time with matter and its aggregations and separations; and although our treatment must perforce be hypothetical, this does not prevent it from being continuous. The point which as evolutionists we are bound to hold fast is that all the new forms of being that make their appearance are nothing more than results of the redistribution of the original and unchanging materials. The self-same atoms which, chaotically dispersed, made the nebula, now, jammed and temporarily caught in peculiar position, form our brains; and the ‘evolution’ of the brains, if understood, would be simply the account of how the atoms came to be so caught and jammed. In this story no new natures, no factors not present at the beginning, are introduced at any later stage.”

James is here presenting a theory which he himself rejects. He recognizes the strength of the “postulate of continuity” in the theories of Spencer, Tyndall, and other evolutionists, but he thinks the evident “contrasts between living and inanimate performances” favor the division of nature into two realms. Yet he also seems to regard some degree of intelligence or mentality as an accompaniment of life. Hence his criterion of the difference in kind “between an intelligent and a mechanical performance”—namely, purposiveness or “the pursuance of future ends and the choice of means”—also serves as the mark of distinction between the animate and the inanimate.

It is worth remarking that this criterion is one of the tests Descartes proposes for differentiating man from all the rest of nature, man alone having reason or thought. It is also worth noting that in associating different degrees of mentality or consciousness with life at all levels of development, James himself affirms a continuity in the realm of all living things. He therefore does not go as far in the direction of discontinuity as do those in the tradition of the great books who find an essential difference between the inanimate and the living, between plant and animal, and between brute and human life.

The issues raised by these last two distinctions are further considered in the chapters on ANIMAL, MAN, and MIND. Here we are concerned only with the fact that those who find genuine differences in kind in the world of animate things also tend to distinguish between the living and the non-living by reference to the most generic properties of corporeal life, that is, the powers or functions shared by plants, animals, and men. The question of origins does not seem to be relevant to the problem of differences. Aquinas, for example, does not seem to regard the hypothesis of the spontaneous generation of living organisms from putrefying organic matter as inconsistent with his assertion that the vegetative functions of plants and animals are not performed—in any degree—by inanimate bodies.

When Aristotle says of natural bodies that “some have life in them, others not; and by life we mean self-nutrition and growth,” he is aware that the word “growth” occurs in the description of a certain type of change in inanimate bodies. Other than living things increase in size. To avoid an equivocal use of the word “growth,” he assigns three distinguishing characteristics to the quantitative change of increase in living things: (1) Any and every part of the growing magnitude is made bigger, (2) by the accession of something, and (3) in such a way, that the growing thing is preserved and persists.”

To exemplify this difference, Galen compares the growth of an organism with the expansion of a dried bladder when children blow air into it. The expanding bladder seems to grow, but not as it did when it was a part of a living animal and when the growth of the whole involved the growth of each part. “In these doings of the children,” Galen writes, “the more the interior cavity of the bladder increases in size, the thinner, necessarily, does its substance become. But, if the children were able to bring nourishment to this thin part, then they would make the bladder big in the same way that Nature does. … To be distended in all directions belongs only to bodies whose growth is directed by Nature; for those which are distended by us undergo this distension in one direction but grow less in the others; it is impossible to find a body which will remain entire and not be torn through whilst we stretch it in the three dimensions. Thus Nature alone has the power to expand a body in all directions so that it remains unruptured and preserves completely its previous form.”

Modern biologists sometimes compare the growth of crystals in solution with living growth and reproduction. Or, making the point that “other systems in dynamic equilibrium show in essence all the properties of living things,” they say that “it is almost impossible to distinguish a candle flame from a living organism.” Aristotle considers the latter comparison and rejects it. He observes that “the growth of fire goes on without limit so long as there is a supply of fuel”; but no amount of nutriment can increase the size of living things without limit. “There is a limit or ratio which determines their size and increase, and the limit and ratio are marks of the soul, but not of fire.”

The flame is a lively thing, but to say that it is alive, that it grows or dies, is in Aristotle’s view a poetic metaphor, not a scientific statement. “When I have plucked the rose,” Othello says, “I cannot give it vital growth again, it needs must wither.” But to the candle burning beside Desdemona’s bed, he says: “If I quench thee, thou flaming minister, I can again thy former light restore.” The flame is lit or extinguished by motions from without; but the birth and death, the nourishing and growth of the living thing is self-movement.

According to Aristotle and Aquinas self-movement is the essential mark of being alive. “All things are said to be alive,” Aquinas writes, “which determine themselves to movement or operation of any kind; whereas those things which cannot by their own nature do so, cannot be called living except by a similitude.” He further defines the meaning of self-movement by distinguishing between the transitive action of one inert body upon another and the immanent activity of a living thing, whereby the agent itself is perfected. Growing, sensing, and understanding are immanent actions because they are activities which affect the growing, sensing, or understanding thing. The result of such actions remains in the agent. In contrast, heating is a transitive action. In heating, one thing acts upon another, and the hot thing loses its own heat in the process.

As vital operations differ thus from the actions of inanimate bodies, so do vital powers differ from the capacities of inert matter, through which bodies can act upon or react to other bodies. The power of self-movement (or immanent activity) enables living things alone to change from a less perfect to a more perfect state of being, as measured by the thing’s nature, rather than simply to change from contrary to contrary, as a body changes when it moves locally from this place to that, or alters from hot to cold, or cold to hot.

For the theologian, there is an additional aspect to the problem of defining life. If the realm of corporeal substances is divided into inert and living bodies, what is to be said about incorporeal substances (i.e., the angels) and about God? It is easier to think of the angels as not being than to conceive them as not being alive. More than “infinite” or “omnipotent” or “eternal,” “the ever-living God” is the phrase which, in the language of religious worship, expresses positively the divine nature. But the fundamental activities which distinguish living from non-living bodies (such as nutrition, growth, reproduction) are essentially corporeal in nature. So, too, are sensing and locomotion. What common meaning of life, then, can apply to material and spiritual beings?

Aquinas answers by saying that “since a thing is said to live in so far as it operates of itself and not as moved by another, the more perfectly this power is found in anything, the more perfect is the life of that thing.” By this criterion, plants are less perfectly alive than animals, in whom self-movement is found to a higher degree because of their sensitive faculties; and among animals, there are grades of life according to degrees of sensitivity, and according to the possession of mobility, a power which certain animals seem to lack. In both the higher animals and in man, there is purposive behavior, but man alone, through his intellect and will, can freely determine his own ends and choose the means to them; hence these faculties give human life an even greater degree of self-movement.

But the action of the human intellect is not perfectly self-determined, for it depends in part upon external causes. Wherefore Aquinas concludes that life in the highest degree belongs properly to God—“that being whose act of understanding is its very nature and which, in what it naturally possesses, is not determined by another.” He quotes Aristotle’s remark that the perfection of God’s life is proportionate to the perfection of the divine intellect, which is purely actual and eternally in act. And he goes on to remark that, in the sense in which understanding is movement, and that which understands itself moves itself, “Plato also taught that God moves Himself.”

Nourishment, growth, and reproduction are indispensable features of corporeal life precisely because corporeal things are perishable. They need “reproduction, to preserve the species,” Aquinas writes, “and nourishment to preserve the individual.” Hence the higher powers of life, such as sensing and understanding, are never found in corporeal things apart from the vegetative powers. This does not hold, however, for spiritual beings which are by nature imperishable. Spiritual life is essentially immortal life.

Subject to the ravages of time, corporeal life at every moment betrays its mortality—in its need for sleep, in the enfeeblement of its powers, in disease, decay, or degeneration. Death is the correlative of life for those who sharply divide the living from the non-living. Rocks may crumble into dust, bodies may disintegrate, and atoms explode—but they do not die. Death is a change which only living matter undergoes. The transition from life to death accentuates the mystery of life. The notion of spontaneous generation aside, life always seems to come from life. Whether by cell division or by germination, the living thing that is generated comes from the living substance of another thing. But when a living thing dies, it crosses the gap between the living and the non-living. As the organic matter of the corpse decomposes, nothing is left but the familiar inorganic elements and compounds. This seems to be a change more radical than generation or birth. All the metaphysical problems of form and substance, of matter and the soul, of continuity and discontinuity in nature, which appear in the analysis of life, become more intense in the understanding of death.

As appears in the chapter on IMMORTALITY, the living are preoccupied with death, not predominantly with analyzing it, but with facing and fearing it, struggling against or embracing it. Death, as the great poems reveal, is the object of soliloquy in moments of greatest introspection or self-appraisal. To die well, Montaigne points out, requires greater moral stamina than to live well. For him the essence of the philosophical temper, as for others the meaning of heroism or martyrdom, consists in facing death with an equanimity which reflects the highest qualities of a well-resolved life. Montaigne devotes a long essay to the subject that “to philosophise is to learn to die,” and begins it by quoting Cicero’s statement that “to study philosophy is nothing but to prepare one’s self to die.” Socrates then is the prototype of the philosopher, for in conversation with his friends in prison while awaiting death, he tells them that “the true votary of philosophy . . . is always pursuing death, and dying.” He tries to prove to them, by his actions as well as by his words, that “the real philosopher has reason to be of good cheer when he is about to die.”

Not only death but the dead exercise a profound effect upon the living. The historians describe the various forms which the ceremonials of death take in every society. Whether the rituals are secular or sacred, they are among the most significant customs of any culture, for they reveal the value placed upon life and the conception of life’s meaning and man’s destiny. No deeper differences exist among the great religions than those which appear in the practices or sacraments in preparation for death and in the services for the dead.

The moral, social, and religious aspects of death appear to be peculiarly human. Yet on the biological level, the same fundamental instincts and emotions seem to prevail in animals and men. The struggle to remain alive may be presumed to occur in plants. But it is not there as plainly discernible as in the specific patterns of behavior manifested by the animal instinct of self-preservation. Almost in proportion to the degree of vitality, the instinct of self-preservation operates with a strength and pertinacity as vigorous as the love for life and arouses as an emotional corollary an equally devouring fear of death.

The instinct of self-preservation is the life instinct. Directed toward the related ends of maintaining and increasing life are the reproductive impulses and the erotic instincts. But, according to Freud, there is in all living matter a more primitive instinct than these, and one which aims in the opposite direction. That is the death instinct—the impulse of the living to return to lifelessness.

“It would be contrary to the conservative nature of instinct,” Freud writes, “if the goal of life were a state never hitherto reached. It must rather be an ancient starting point, which the living being left long ago, and to which it harks back again. … If we may assume as an experience admitting of no exception that everything dies from causes within itself, and returns to the inorganic, we can only say ‘The goal of all life is death.’ ”

The death instinct, according to Freud, originates with life itself. “At one time or another, by some operation of force which completely baffles conjecture, the properties of life were awakened in lifeless matter. … The tension then aroused in the previously inanimate matter strove to attain an equilibrium; the first instinct was present, that to return to lifelessness.” The death instinct acts against the tendency of the erotic instincts, “which are always trying to collect living substances together into ever larger unities. … The cooperation and opposition of these two forces produce the phenomena of life to which death puts an end.”

Freud’s hypothesis of the death instinct has a bearing on the impulse to commit suicide and on the question whether it is natural or perverse for men to choose this escape from the tensions and difficulties of life. The psychological problem here, especially with regard to the unconscious forms of the suicidal impulse, is not the same as the moral problem. The question whether animals other than men ever commit suicide, like the question whether the killing of one animal by another can be called “murder,” indicates the difference between psychological description and moral judgment.

For the moralist the condemnation of suicide seems to rest on the same grounds as the condemnation of murder. With Kant, for example, it represents the same type of violation of the universal moral law. The categorical imperative requires us to act always as if the maxim of our individual action could be universalized as a rule for all men to follow. But, in the case of suicide as in the case of murder, the maxim of the action cannot be universalized without accomplishing a result which no one intends. Furthermore, suicide is not consistent with the idea of the human person as an end in itself. The man, says Kant, who destroys himself “in order to escape from painful circumstances uses a person merely as a means to maintain a tolerable condition up to the end of life.”

Suicide is also condemned by the theologians as a contravention of the divine as well as of the natural law. Men are God’s handiwork and, therefore, as Locke puts it, “they are His property … made to last during His, not one another’s, pleasure.” Under the natural law, a man is not at “liberty to destroy himself, nor consequently is he at liberty to sell himself into slavery.” Everyone “is bound to preserve himself and not quit his station willfully.” If, furthermore, there is an after-life of rewards and punishments, suicide is no escape. “Death so snatched,” Adam tells Eve in Paradise Lost, “will not exempt us from the pain we are by doom to pay.”

There is similar reasoning in pagan antiquity. Suicide is an act of violence and, says Plotinus, “If there be a period allotted to all by fate, to anticipate the hour could not be a happy act. … If everyone is to hold in the other world a standing determined by the state in which he quitted this, there must be no withdrawal as long as there is any hope of progress.” A Christian would add that to relinquish hope as long as life persists is the sin of despair.

But the pagan tradition also speaks with an opposite voice. For the Stoics, suicide does not seem to be as reprehensible as murder. To those who complain of life’s pains and the fetters of the body, Epictetus says, “The door is open.” In a doctrine in which all things that affect only the body are indifferent to the soul’s well-being, death too is indifferent. “Death is the harbor for all; this is the place of refuge; as soon as you choose, you may be out of the house.”

OUTLINE OF TOPICS

1. The nature and cause of life: the soul as the principle of life in organic bodies
2. Continuity or discontinuity between living and non-living things: comparison of vital powers and activities with the potentialities and motions of inert bodies
3. The modes or grades of corporeal life: the classification and order of the various vital powers or functions
   • 3a. Continuity or discontinuity between plants and animals: comparison of plant and animal nutrition, respiration, growth, and reproduction
   • 3b. The grades of animal life: types and degrees of mobility and sensitivity; analogies of structure and function
4. The biological economy: the environment of the organism; the interdependence of plants and animals
5. Normal vitality and its impairment by disease, degeneration, and enfeeblement with age
   • 5a. The nature and causes of health
   • 5b. The restorative function of rest or sleep
   • 5c. The nature and causes of disease
6. The life span and the life cycle
   • 6a. The life span of plants and animals, and of different species of plants and animals
   • 6b. The human life span
   • 6c. The biological characteristics of the stages of life
7. The causes and occurrence of death: the transition from life to death
8. The concern of the living with life and death
   • 8a. The love of life: the instinct of self-preservation; the life instinct
   • 8b. The desire for death: the death instinct; the problem of suicide
   • 8c. The contemplation and fear of death: the attitude of the hero, the philosopher, the martyr
   • 8d. The ceremonials of death: the rites of burial in war and peace

REFERENCES

To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 Homer: Iliad, BK XI [265-283] 12d, the number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the passage is in section d of page 12.

Page Sections: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 James: Psychology, 116a-119b, the passage begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of the page. For example, in 7 PLATO: Symposium, 163b-164c, the passage begins in the lower half of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.

Author’s Divisions: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH, SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in certain cases; e.g., Iliad, BK XI [265-283] 12d.

Bible References: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., OLD TESTAMENT: Nehemiah, 7:45—(D) II Esdras 7:46.

Symbols: The abbreviation “esp” calls the reader’s attention to one or more especially relevant parts of a whole reference; “passim” signifies that the topic is discussed intermittently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.

For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.

1. The nature and cause of life: the soul as the principle of life in organic bodies

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:20-27; 2:7 / Job, 12:9-10 7 PLATO: Cratylus, 93c / Phaedrus, 124b-d / Phaedo, 223c-d; 225b; 244b-246c / Gorgias, 275d-277b passim / Laws, BK X, 763a-764a 8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK VI, CH 10 [148a23-37] 202b-c / Metaphysics, BK V, CH 4 [1014b22-26] 535a, CH 8 [1017b10-17] 538b; BK VII, CH 10 [1035b14-28] 559a-b; BK IX, CH 6 [1048a18-34] 574a-c; BK XI, CH 7 [1072b14-29] 602d-603a; BK XIII, CH 2 [1077a20-23] 608c / On the Soul, BK I 631a-641d passim; BK II, CH 1-4 642a-647b; BK III, CH 12-13 667a-668d / On Youth and Old Age, On Life and Death, On Breathing, CH 1-4 714a-716b; CH 14 720d-721a 9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [640b30-641a33] 163c-164b / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 19 [726b15-29] 266d-267a; BK II, CH 1 [731b29-33] 272a-b; [734b20-735a9] 275b-d; CH 3 [737a18-34] 278a-b; CH 5 [741a6-31] 282a-b; BK III, CH 11 [762a18-b22] 303b-d 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 1 167a-b; BK II, CH 3, 185a-b 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK II [865-1022] 26a-28a; BK III [94-416] 31b-35c; BK V [783-825] 71b-d 17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR I 1a-6b passim / Second Ennead, TR VI, CH 12-13 46c-47b / Third Ennead, TR VI, CH 3, 108b; TR VIII, CH 8, 133a-b / Fourth Ennead, TR I, CH 8, 146c-d; CH 9, 147b-c; CH 19 151d-152b; CH 23, 153d; TR IV, CH 29 173b-174b; TR V, CH 7, 188b-c; TR VII, CH 2-5 192a-194a; CH 14 200b-c / Fifth Ennead, TR I, CH 2, 208c-209a / Sixth Ennead, TR IV, CH 1 297b-d; CH 4-6 299a-300b; CH 16, 305a; TR V, CH 12 310b-d 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XII, CH 25 358b-359a; BK XIII, CH 2 360b-361a; BK XXII, CH 24, 609c-610a / On Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 8 626c-627a 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 3, A 1, ANS 14b-15b; Q 4, A 2, REP 3 21b-22b; Q 10, A 1, REP 2 40d-41d; Q 18 104b-108c; Q 27, A 2, ANS 154c-155b; Q 51, A 1, REP 3 275b-276b; A 3 277a-278c; Q 69, A 2 361c-362c; Q 70, A 3, ANS and REP 2-5 365b-367a; QQ 71-72 367a-369d; QQ 75-76 378a-399b passim; Q 97, A 3, ANS 515a-d; QQ 118-119 600a-608d passim 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 56, A 1, REP 1 30a-c; PART II-II, Q 23, A 2, REP 2 483d-484d; PART III, Q 2, A 5 715a-716b; Q 5, A 3 737d-739a 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVIII [49-54] 80b-c; XXV [19-108] 91c-92c; PARADISE, II [127-148] 109a-b; VII [121-148] 116b-c 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b; PART I, 65a; PART III, 173d; 176d; PART IV, 251a 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III, 138a-b 28 HARVEY: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, 285d-286a; 296a-d / On the Circulation of the Blood, 316a-318b; 325d-326d / On Animal Generation, 384d-390b passim; 431b-434a esp 433c-d; 488d-496d 31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 156a-d; 207a; 226b 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXVII, SECT 3-5 219d-220c passim; BK III, CH X, SECT 22, 297d 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 191b-192b 42 KANT: The Critique of Judgement, 555a-558b 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART I, PAR 47 24a-b; ADDITIONS, 28 121b; 161 143a-b 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [6819-7004] 167a-171b; [7851-7864] 191b 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 27b-28a; 344b-345a 49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 145b-c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK XII, 561b-d; BK XIV, 608a-b 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 140a 54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 652d; 654c-656d esp 655c-656a, 659d-660b / The Ego and the Id, 708d-709a / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 851c

2. Continuity or discontinuity between living and non-living things: comparison of vital powers and activities with the potentialities and motions of inert bodies

8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK IV, CH 5 [213a4-9] 292c; BK V, CH 3 [227a10-17] 307d-308a; BK VII, CH 2 [244b1-245a12] 328b-d; BK VIII, CH 1 [250b11-14] 334a; CH 4 338d-340d; CH 6 [259a20-b31] 345a-d / On the Heavens, BK II, CH 2 [284b30-285a1] 376c / Meteorology, BK IV, CH 1-3 482b,d-486a / Metaphysics, BK V, CH 4 [1014b17-26] 534d-535a; BK VII, CH 16 [1040b5-16] 564c / On the Soul, BK I, CH 5 [411a7-23] 641a-b; BK II, CH 1 642a-643a; CH 4 645b-647b; CH 12 656a-d / On Longevity and Shortness of Life, CH 2-3 710b-711b 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK VIII, CH 1 [588a4-10] 114d-115a / Parts of Animals, BK IV, CH 5 [681a12-15] 211d / Motion of Animals, CH 1 [698a15-21] 233b; CH 4 [700a5-27] 235b-c; CH 6 235d-236b; CH 7 [701b1]-CH 8 [702a12] 236d-238a / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 23 [731a30-b8] 271c-d; BK II, CH 4 [740b13-18] 281a; BK III, CH 11 [761b25-763a15] 302d-304d 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 7 170c-171a; BK II, CH 3, 186c-d 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK I [215-264] 3d-4b; BK II [865-930] 26a-d 12 MARCUS AURELIUS: Meditations, BK IX, SECT 9 292b-d 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 3, A 1, ANS 14b-15b; Q 18, A 1 104c-105c; A 4 107d-108c; Q 27, A 2, ANS and REP 1 154c-155b; Q 51, A 3 277a-278c; Q 69, A 2, REP 1 361c-362c; Q 70, A 3 365b-367a; Q 78, A 1, ANS and REP 3 407b-409a; A 3, ANS 410a-411d; Q 118, A 1, ANS 600a-601c; PART I-II, Q 17, A 9, REP 2 692d-693d 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, INTRO, 47a-b 27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello, ACT V, SC II [7-15] 239a 28 GILBERT: On the Loadstone, BK III, 67b-d 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 384a-b; 457a 30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 27, 157b-158a; APH 40, 171a-d; APH 48 179d-188b 31 DESCARTES: Discourse on Method, PART V, 59a-d 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 75 185b-186a / The Great Experiment, 382b-383a / On the Weight of the Mass of the Air, 425a 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXVI, SECT 2, 217c; CH XXVII, SECT 3-5 219d-220c passim; BK III, CH VI, SECT 12 271d-272b; BK IV, CH III, SECT 25 321a-b; CH XVI, SECT 12, 370c-371a 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 337d-338a 42 KANT: The Critique of Judgement, 555a-558b; 578d-582c esp 579d-580a, 582b-c, 602b,d [fn 1] 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37, 119c 45 FARADAY: Experimental Researches in Electricity, 836d 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 341c-d 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK X, 449b-c 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 4a-6b; 68a-71b passim, esp 68a-b; 85a-b, 95b-96a 54 FREUD: The Unconscious, 429c-d / Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651d-652d; 661b-c / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 849d-851c

3. The modes or grades of corporeal life: the classification and order of the various vital powers or functions

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:11-12,20-31 / Psalms, 8 esp 8:4-8—(D) Psalms, 8 esp 8:5-9 / Ecclesiastes, 3:18-22 7 PLATO: Phaedrus, 124c-128d passim / Symposium, 165c-166b / Republic, BK IV, 350c-353d / Timaeus, 466a-c; 469d-470a 8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK II, CH 8 [199a20-b13] 276c-d / On the Heavens, BK II, CH 12 383b-384c / On Generation and Corruption, BK I, CH 5 417b-420b / Meteorology, BK IV, CH 2 [379b10-25] 483d-484a / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 1 [980a22-b27] 499a-b; BK IX, CH 2 571c-572a; CH 5 573a-c / On the Soul 631a-668d esp BK I, CH 5 [410b16-411a2] 640d-641a, BK II, CH 2-3 643a-645b, BK III, CH 12-13 667a-668d / On Sense and the Sensible 673a-689a,c / On Memory and Reminiscence 690a-695d / On Sleep and Sleeplessness 696a-701d / On Youth and Old Age, On Life and Death, On Breathing 714a-726d 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK VIII, CH 1 114b,d-115b / Parts of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [641a5-10] 164b-c; BK II, CH 10 [655b28-656a14] 181d-182b; BK IV, CH 5 [681a12-15] 211d; CH 10 [686b23-687a1] 218b-c / Motion of Animals, CH 6-11 235d-239d esp CH 10 238c-239a / Gait of Animals, CH 4 244a-245a / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 23 [731a24-b8] 271c-d; BK II, CH 3 [736a25-b29] 276d-277c; CH 4 [740b25]-CH 5 [741a31] 281d-282b; BK III, CH 7 [757b14-30] 298c-d; CH 11 [761a12-b23] 302b-d / Ethics, BK I, CH 7 [1097b33-1098a7] 343b; CH 13 [1102a33-1103a3] 347d-348c / Politics, BK VII, CH 13 [1332a39-b8] 537a-b 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties 167a-215d esp BK I, CH 1 167a-b, CH 5-8 169b-171a 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK III [258-322] 33b-34b 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 6, 111a-c; BK II, CH 8, 146a-b 12 MARCUS AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 16 262d-263a,c; BK V, SECT 16 271c-d; BK VIII, SECT 7 286a; BK IX, SECT 9 292b-d 16 KEPLER: Epitome of Copernican Astronomy, BK IV, 854b-856a 17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR I, CH 1-7 1a-4a passim; CH 11 5b-c; TR IV, CH 3, 13d / Fourth Ennead, TR III, CH 19 151d-152b; CH 23 153d-154b; TR IV, CH 28 172a-173b; TR VII, CH 14 200b-c; TR IX, CH 3 206a-b / Fifth Ennead, TR II, CH 2 215a-c 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK VII, CH 23, 256b-c; CH 29 261a-b; BK XIX, CH 13, 519a / On Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 8 626c-627a 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 3, A 1, REP 2 14b-15b; Q 18, AA 1-3 104c-107c; Q 27, A 2, ANS 154c-155b; Q 45, A 5, REP 1 245c-247a; Q 51, A 3 277a-278c; Q 69, A 2 361c-362c; Q 70, A 3 365b-367a; QQ 71-72 367a-369d; Q 75, A 1, ANS 378b-379c; A 6, REP 1 383c-384c; Q 76, A 5, REP 3-4 394c-396a, QQ 77-83 399b-440b; Q 98 516d-519a; QQ 118-119 600a-608d; PART I-II, Q 17, AA 8-9 692a-693d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 110, A 4, REP 3 350d-351d; PART III, Q 7, A 9, ANS 751d-752c 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XXV [37-84] 91d-92b; PARADISE, VII [121-148] 116b-c 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III, 137b-c; 138a-139b; 192d 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 369d-370b; 384d-390b passim; 397b-398c; 441a-443b; 444c-445c; 447a-b; 456b-458a esp 457a-d 30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 30 159c-d; APH 48, 186d 31 DESCARTES: Discourse on Method, PART V, 56a-b; 59a-60c / Objections and Replies, 156a-d; 207a; 244b-c 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART III, PROP 57, SCHOL 415b 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK V [469-490] 185b-186a; BK VIII [307-338] 223b-224b; [387-550] 225b-229a 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 75 185b-186a; 339-344 233a-b 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH IX, SECT 11-15 140b-141a; CH XXVII, SECT 4-6 220a-d; BK III, CH VI, SECT 12 271d-272b; BK IV, CH XVI, SECT 12, 370c-371a 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 337d-338a 42 KANT: The Critique of Pure Reason, 199c-200c / The Critique of Judgement, 578d-580a; 583b-c; 602b,d [fn 1] 45 FARADAY: Experimental Researches in Electricity, 836d 49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 3a-b; 47c-49c; 60b-61d; 64a-d; 71a-d; 241b-c / The Descent of Man, 331b-c 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 4a-7a; 68b-73b esp 68b, 71a; 95b; 699a 54 FREUD: On Narcissism, 401a-d / Instincts and their Vicissitudes, 415b / Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 647a-648a; 648b-c; 651d-654b; 654d-657d esp 656a, 657b-c; 659d-661c / The Ego and the Id, 708d-709b; 711c-712a / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 851a-c

3a. Continuity or discontinuity between plants and animals: comparison of plant and animal nutrition, respiration, growth, and reproduction

7 PLATO: Republic, BK VIII, 403b-d / Timaeus, 469d-470a 8 ARISTOTLE: Topics, BK VI, CH 10 [148a23-38] 202b-c / Physics, BK II, CH 8 [199a20-b13] 276c-d / On the Heavens, BK II, CH 12 [292a1-11] 384a / On the Soul, BK I, CH 5 [410b16-411a2] 640d-641a; BK II, CH 2 [413a20-b4] 643b-c; CH 4 [415b28-416b5] 646a-b / On Sleep and Sleeplessness, CH 1 696a-697c 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK IV, CH 6 [531b8-9] 58b; BK V, CH 1 [539a15-26] 65b-d; CH 11 [543b23-31] 70c; BK VIII, CH 1 [588a4-589a2] 114d-115b / Parts of Animals, BK II, CH 3 [650a1-37] 174c-175a; CH 10 [655b27-656a8] 181d-182a; BK IV, CH 4 [677b36-678a15] 207d-208a; CH 5 [681a10-b9] 211c-212b; CH 6 [682b26-28] 213d; CH 10 [686b23-687a1] 218b-c / Gait of Animals, CH 4 [705b26-29] 244a-b / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [715b17-716a2] 255d-256a; CH 23 271b-d; BK II, CH 1 [732a12-24] 272c; [735a13-26] 275d-276a; CH 3 [736a24-b14] 276d-277b; CH 4 [740b24]-CH 5 [741a32] 281b-282b; BK III, CH 2 [752b10-23] 293a-b; CH 5 [755b6-13] 296c-d; CH 7 [757b14-30] 298c-d; CH 11 302b-304d; BK V, CH 1 [778b30-779a4] 321a-b / Ethics, BK I, CH 13 [1102a34] 347d / Politics, BK I, CH 2 [1252a26-31] 445c 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 1 167a-b 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK II [700-710] 23d-24a; BK V [783-820] 71b-d 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK II, CH 8, 146a-b 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 18, A 1, ANS and REP 2 104c-105c; A 2, REP 1 105c-106b; A 3, ANS and REP 3 106b-107c; Q 69, A 2, REP 1 361c-362c; Q 72, A 1, REP 1,5 368b-369d; Q 118, A 1 esp REP 2 600a-601c; Q 119 604c-608d 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III, 143a-144c 28 HARVEY: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, 278b; 299b-c / On the Circulation of the Blood, 327d-328a / On Animal Generation, 368a-b; 369d-370b; 372b; 384c-d; 397c-398c; 428c-429a; 442b-c; 449a-b; 457c-d; 461b-d; 468b-469b; 471b-c 30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 27, 158a-b 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH IX, SECT 11-15 140b-141a passim; BK III, CH VI, SECT 12 271d-272b 42 KANT: The Critique of Judgement, 579d-580a; 582b-c 43 FEDERALIST: NUMBER 37, 119c 45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART II, 57b-c 49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 47c-49c passim, esp 49a-c; 115b; 241b-c / The Descent of Man, 372b-c 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 8a

3b. The grades of animal life: types and degrees of mobility and sensitivity; analogies of structure and function

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:20-25 8 ARISTOTLE: Posterior Analytics, BK II, CH 14 [98a20-23] 134a / On the Soul, BK II, CH 2 [413b4-10] 643c; [414a1-3] 644a; BK III, CH 11 [433b31-434a9] 666d; CH 12-13 667a-668d / On Sense and the Sensible, CH 1 [436b12-437a17] 673c-674a; CH 5 [443b17-445a4] 681c-682d / On Youth and Old Age, On Life and Death, On Breathing 714a-726d passim 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals 7a-158d esp BK I, CH 1-6 7a-13a, BK II, CH 1 19b,d-23d, BK IV, CH 8 59d-62a, BK V, CH 1 65a-66a, BK VIII, CH 1 114b,d-115b / Parts of Animals 161a-229d passim, esp BK I, CH 4 167d-168c, CH 5 [645b1-646a5] 169b-d / Gait of Animals 243a-252a,c / Generation of Animals 255a-331a,c esp BK I, CH 1-19 255a-268a, BK II, CH 1 272a-276a, BK III 290a-304d, BK IV, CH 4-6 311c-317d, BK V 320a-331a,c 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK II, CH 2 199d-200a 12 MARCUS AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 16 262d-263a,c 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 18, A 2, REP 1 105c-106b; A 3, ANS 106b-107c; Q 50, A 4, REP 1 273b-274b; QQ 71-72 367a-369d; Q 76, A 5, REP 3 394c-396a; Q 78, A 1, ANS and REP 4 407b-409a 28 HARVEY: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, 274b-d; 277b-278d; 280c-283a; 299b-302c / On Animal Generation, 336b-d; 338a-496d esp 449a-454c, 463d-464a, 470c-472c 30 BACON: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 27, 158a; APH 30 159c-d 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH IX, SECT 11-15 140b-141a; BK III, CH VI, SECT 12 271d-272b 35 HUME: An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, SECT IX, DIV 82 487b-c 42 KANT: The Critique of Judgement, 578d-580a esp 579b-c; 602b,d [fn 1] 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 273a-274a; 279a-b 49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 75b-78c; 82d-94c; 112b-113c; 207a-229a,c esp 228c-229a,c; 238b-239a / The Descent of Man, 255a-265d; 271a-275c; 278c-284b; 300a-b; 331a-341d esp 332a-c, 337a-341d; 348b-c; 402b-c 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 13a-14b; 19b-42b passim, esp 40a, 41b; 51a-52a; 705b-706b 54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651d-654b esp 653b, 654a / Civilization and Its Discontents, 768d-769a

4. The biological economy: the environment of the organism; the interdependence of plants and animals

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 1:11-13,20-31 6 HERODOTUS: The History, BK II, 63b-c; 64b-c; BK III, 112d-113b 7 PLATO: Republic, BK VI, 377c-d / Timaeus, 469d-470a 8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK II, CH 2 [194a33] 271a / Meteorology, BK IV, CH 1 482b,d-483c / On Longevity and Shortness of Life 710a-713a,c 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK I, CH 1 [487b14-15] 8a-b; BK V, CH 11 [543b19-31] 70b-c; CH 22 [553b20-23] 80c; CH 31 [557a4-32] 83d-84a; BK VI, CH 17 [570b29-571a2] 96d; BK VIII, CH 2-29 115c-132d esp CH 2-13 115c-125b, CH 18-20 127b-129b, CH 28-29 131c-132d; BK IX, CH 1 [608b19]-CH 2 [610a19] 134a-136b; CH 31 [618b9-13] 144a-b; CH 32 [619a27-31] 144d-145a; CH 37 [622a8-15] 147c / Parts of Animals, BK IV, CH 8 [684a1-14] 215b; CH 12 [693b10-24] 225a / Gait of Animals, CH 15 [713a3]-CH 18 [714b8] 250d-252a / Generation of Animals, BK III, CH 10 [760a27-b28] 301b-d 10 HIPPOCRATES: On Airs, Waters, and Places 9a-19a,c esp PAR 1-2 9a-c 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK II, CH 8-9 191b-199a,c 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK III [784-787] 40b; BK V [837-877] 72a-c; [925-1010] 73b-74b 17 PLOTINUS: Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 32, 175d-176a 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 69, A 2 361c-362c; QQ 71-72 367a-369d; Q 118, A 1, REP 3 600a-601c 28 GALILEO: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 160c-d; SECOND DAY, 187d-188c 28 HARVEY: On Animal Generation, 453c 33 PASCAL: On the Equilibrium of Liquids, 401a-403a / On the Weight of the Mass of the Air, 415a-b 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 224a-b; 295b-296b 38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK XV, 102b,d-104a 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 334b,d-337d passim 39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK I, 33c-34a; 63a-b 40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 428c-d 42 KANT: The Critique of Judgement, 553c-554b; 583b-c; 584d-585c 45 LAVOISIER: Elements of Chemistry, PART II, 57b-c 45 FOURIER: Analytical Theory of Heat, 209b 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 227b-228a 49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 9b-10d; 32a-41c esp 38b-39a; 49d-55b esp 52d-53a, 53d-55b, 65a-d; 68b-69c; 81a-c; 181a-206a,c passim, esp 184d-188c, 204d-206a,c; 242d-243d / The Descent of Man, 268b-269a; 341b,d [fn 32]; 350b-356a; 424a-425d; 430d-432c; 442a-443b; 525b-527c; 554d-555b 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 701a

5. Normal vitality and its impairment by disease, degeneration, and enfeeblement with age

7 PLATO: Timaeus, 471d-474d 8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [246b10-19] 329c-330a / On the Heavens, BK II, CH 6 [288b15-19] 380a-b / On the Soul, BK I, CH 4 [408b18-29] 638c 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK VI, CH 25 103c; BK VII, CH 1 [581b25-582a4] 107b-c / Parts of Animals, BK II, CH 5 [651b37-a18] 176c; CH 7 177c-179a esp [653a1-7] 178d-179a / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 18 [725b18-25] 265d-266a; BK IV, CH 2 [766b27-34] 308b; BK V, CH 1 [780a4-12] 322b-d; CH 4 [784a31-b37] 326b-d 10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, PAR 3-4 1d-2c; PAR 9-22 3b-8d 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK II, CH 8-9 191b-199a,c esp CH 8, 194c-d, CH 9, 195c-196a 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK II [1105-1174] 29a-30a,c; BK III [445-458] 35d-36a 12 MARCUS AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 1 259b,d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 70, A 1, REP 7 893d-895d 22 CHAUCER: The Reeve’s Prologue [3862-3896] 224a-b / The Wife of Bath’s Prologue [6051-6062] 263b-264a 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III, 181d-182b 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 33b-c; 156d-158a,c; 394a-395b; 406c-408b 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1 Henry VI, ACT II, SC V [1-16] 12d-13a / As You Like It, ACT II, SC VII [137-166] 608d-609a 28 HARVEY: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, 296c-d / On Animal Generation, 433a-c; 493a-b 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK XI [527-543] 310b-311a 34 NEWTON: Optics, BK I, 384b-385b 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART III, 127a-128a 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 352b-353a 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on Political Economy, 368d-369a / The Social Contract, BK III, 419c-d 49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 145a-145c esp 145a / The Descent of Man, 256c; 323c-327b passim; 354a-355c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK X, 449b-c; BK XI, 499c-500c; BK XV, 617a-b; EPILOGUE I, 665a-d 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 19b-41a passim, esp 21a-26b; 44a-47a; 431b-433a; 815a 54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 655b-657d / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 718a-719d

5a. The nature and causes of health

6 HERODOTUS: The History, BK IV, 157a 7 PLATO: Charmides, 2a-3b / Symposium, 155d-157a / Gorgias, 282c-283a / Republic, BK III, 334b-337a; BK IV, 355b-d / Timaeus, 474d-475d / Philebus, 616d-617a 8 ARISTOTLE: Categories, CH 8 [8b25-9a28] 13d-14b passim / Topics, BK II, CH 11 [116b17-21] 163a-b / Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [246b10-19] 329c-330a / On the Heavens, BK II, CH 12 [292a14-18] 383d-384b / Metaphysics, BK V, CH 20 [1022b10-13] 544a / On the Soul, BK I, CH 4 [408b1-2] 637c; BK II, CH 2 [414a4-14] 644a-b / On Sense and the Sensible, CH 5 [445a17-31] 683a-b 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK III, CH 19 [520b19-521a15] 45c-46a; BK VII, CH 1 [581b25-582a4] 107b-c / Parts of Animals, BK II, CH 5 [651b37-a17] 176c; CH 7 177c-179a; BK IV, CH 2 [677a5-b1] 206d-207b / Ethics, BK II, CH 2 [1104a10-19] 349c; BK V, CH 1 [1129a12-25] 376b-c; CH 11 [1138a29-32] 386d; BK VI, CH 12 [1143b21-1144a5] 393b-c passim; BK VII, CH 14 [1154b17-20] 406a,c / Politics, BK VII, CH 17 [1336a4-39] 541a-c / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 5 [1361b37] 602a; CH 7 [1363b34-1364a5] 605b 10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, PAR 13-19 4c-7b / On Regimen in Acute Diseases, PAR 9, 29d / On the Surgery, PAR 20 73d / On Articulations, PAR 58, 113a / On the Sacred Disease, 156b-c 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK II, CH 8, 194c-d; CH 9, 195c-196a 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK III [558-565] 37b 12 MARCUS AURELIUS: Meditations, BK V, SECT 8 269d-270b 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIX, CH 13, 519a; BK XXII, CH 24, 610c-611a 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 49, A 2 2b-4a; A 3, REP 3 4b-5a; A 4, ANS 5a-6a; Q 50, A 1, ANS and REP 2-3 6a-7b; A 3, REP 2 8b-9a; Q 51, A 1, ANS 12b-13c; Q 52, A 1, ANS 15d-18a; A 2, ANS 18a-19a; Q 54, A 1, ANS 22d-23d 24 RABELAIS: Gargantua and Pantagruel, BK III, 134d-135a; BK IV, 234a-235a; 239d-240a 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 233c-236a passim; 368d; 369d-370a; 528c-529b 28 HARVEY: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, 296d-297a / On Animal Generation, 433a-c; 493a-b 30 BACON: The Advancement of Learning, 72b 32 MILTON: Areopagitica, 407b 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 412a-417a 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 335a-b; 336b-337a 39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK IV, 293d-294b 40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 87d-88a 42 KANT: Preface and Introduction to the Metaphysical Elements of Ethics, 368d-369a / The Critique of Judgement, 509c-d 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 171d-172a 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 324d; 356d-357c 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 59d 54 FREUD: A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 635b-c

5b. The restorative function of rest or sleep

5 SOPHOCLES: Philoctetes [821-832] 189c 8 ARISTOTLE: On Sleep and Sleeplessness 696a-701d esp CH 2 [455b13-28] 698b-c 9 ARISTOTLE: Parts of Animals, BK II, CH 7 [653a11-20] 178b-c / Ethics, BK I, CH 13 [1102a34-b13] 347d-348a 10 HIPPOCRATES: The Book of Prognostics, PAR 10 21c 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK IV [907-961] 56a-d 26 SHAKESPEARE: A Midsummer-Night’s Dream, ACT III, SC II [431-436] 367c / 2 Henry IV, ACT III, SC I [1-31] 482d-483a / Henry V, ACT IV, SC I [270-301] 554b-c 27 SHAKESPEARE: King Lear, ACT IV, SC IV [1-20] 272b-c / Macbeth, ACT II, SC II [35-43] 291c-d / Henry VIII, ACT V, SC I [1-5] 578a / Sonnets, XXVIII 590c 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART II, 413b 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 348b-349b 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 337c 39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK I, 35a-b 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 352b-c 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [4613-4727] 115a-117b 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 91b 50 MARX: Capital, 112b; 128a-b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK III, 144d-146d; BK XII, 554b-d; BK XIII, 584c 54 FREUD: A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 478c-d; 617b-c

5c. The nature and causes of disease

OLD TESTAMENT: Leviticus, 26:16 / Numbers, 12:10-15; 16:46-50 / Deuteronomy, 28:21-22,27-28,35,58-62 / II Kings, 5:27—(D) IV Kings, 5:27 / I Chronicles, 21:14-15—(D) I Paralipomenon, 21:14-15 / II Chronicles, 26:18-21—(D) II Paralipomenon, 26:18-21 / Job, 2:7 / Psalms, 107:17-20—(D) Psalms, 106:17-20 APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 37:29-31—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 37:32-34 / II Maccabees, 3:27-29—(D) OT, II Machabees, 3:27-29 NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 9:32-33; 17:14-18 / I Corinthians, 11:25-30 6 HERODOTUS: The History, BK I, 32c-d; 38a-b; BK II, 64c-d; BK III, 96c; BK IV, 135c-d; 157a 6 THUCYDIDES: The Peloponnesian War, BK II, 399b-401b 7 PLATO: Symposium, 155d-157a esp 156d / Republic, BK III, 334b-337a; BK IV, 345b-c; 355b-c; BK X, 435a-c / Timaeus, 472a-474b 8 ARISTOTLE: Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [246b10-19] 329c-330a / Meteorology, BK IV, CH 7 [384a25-34] 488c 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK III, CH 11 [518b2-4] 43a; CH 15 [519b15-20] 44c; CH 19 [521a10-32] 46a-b; BK VII, CH 1 [581b22-582a4] 107b-c; CH 12 114c; BK VIII, CH 18-27 127b-131b passim; CH 29 132c-d / Parts of Animals, BK II, CH 5 [651b37-a18] 176c; CH 7 [653a1-7] 178d-179a; BK III, CH 7 [670b5-11] 199a; BK IV, CH 2 [677a5-b1] 206d-207b / Generation of Animals, BK IV, CH 7 317d-318b, BK V, CH 4 [784a31-b35] 326b-d / Ethics, BK II, CH 2 [1104a10-19] 349c; BK V, CH 1 [1129a12-25] 376b-c; CH 11 [1138a29-32] 386d; BK VII, CH 8 [1150b29-35] 401c-d 10 HIPPOCRATES: Ancient Medicine, PAR 1 1a-b; PAR 3 1d-2b; PAR 6 2d-3a; PAR 9-11 3b-4b; PAR 13-22 4c-8d / On Airs, Waters, and Places, PAR 1-10 9a-14a; PAR 22 17b-18a / On Regimen in Acute Diseases, PAR 9-10 29d-30d; APPENDIX, PAR 1 35c-d; PAR 3 35d-36a; PAR 5-6 36b-37a; PAR 17 40d-41a / Of the Epidemics, BK I, SECT I, PAR 1 44a-b; SECT II, PAR 7-8 47a-c; BK III, SECT III, PAR 1-2 56d-57a; PAR 15 59b / On the Surgery, PAR 20 73d / On Fractures, PAR 31, 87a / On Articulations, PAR 12 96a-b; PAR 58, 113a / Aphorisms, SECT I, PAR 51 133d; SECT II, PAR 1-19 134a-d; SECT V, PAR 16-24 138b-c / On Fistulae, PAR 1 150a / On Hemorrhoids, PAR 1 152b / On the Sacred Disease 154a-160d esp 155d-156a, 160b-d 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK II, CH 8-9 191b-199a,c passim; BK III, CH 12 208b-209b esp 208d 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK III [459-614] 36a-38a; BK VI [769-829] 90c-91b; [1090-1286] 94d-97a,c 17 PLOTINUS: Second Ennead, TR IX, CH 14 74b-d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 71, A 1, REP 3 105d-106c; Q 72, A 5, ANS 115a-116b; Q 77, A 3, ANS 147c-148b; Q 88, A 1, ANS 193a-194b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART II, 151b-c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 330b-c; 367b-368a; 369d-370a; 371c-d; 528c-529b 28 HARVEY: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, 296a-d / On the Circulation of the Blood, 305a-d; 316c-d; 321d-322a / On Animal Generation, 386d-387a; 407a; 423b; 433a-c; 455d-456a; 493a-b 30 BACON: The Advancement of Learning, 52b-d 31 DESCARTES: Discourse on Method, PART VI, 61c 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK XI [477-548] 309b-311a 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART IV, 155b-157a; 161b-162a 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 412a-417a 38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK XIV, 106b-107a 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 336b-337a; 364b-c 39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK I, 34d-35b 41 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 70a-71a,c 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 306d-307a 49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 9d-10a / The Descent of Man, 256a; 350d-354a passim; 356d-357b; 380b-c 50 MARX: Capital, 115c; 118b-124a passim; 178a; 194b-195b, 204a-c; 236c-237d; 324a-330d 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 52d; BK V, 222b; BK IX, 372a-374d 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 69a-b; 799a-807a esp 799a-800a, 806a-b; 815a; 895a 54 FREUD: The Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis, 4c-5a / Studies in Hysteria, 25a-59d esp 25a-30d, 37d-38d, 56b-58c; 87a-97b; 111a-115a esp 114b-115a / On Narcissism, 402d-404a / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 593b-595b; 601b-607b esp 605b-606a / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 744b-747b esp 746c

6. The life span and the life cycle

6a. The life span of plants and animals, and of different species of plants and animals

7 PLATO: Timaeus, 475d 8 ARISTOTLE: On the Heavens, BK I, CH 9 [279a23-b4] 370c-d / On Longevity and Shortness of Life 710a-713a,c 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK V, CH 14 [545b15-20] 72b; CH 15 [547b8-11] 74b; CH 18 [550b14-16] 77c; CH 23 [554a6-8] 81b; CH 33 [558a16-20] 84d-85a; BK VI, CH 4 [563a2-3] 89b; CH 9 [564b25-27] 90c; CH 12 [566b23-27] 92d-93a; CH 17 [571a8-12] 96d-97a; CH 18 [573a16-17], CH 19 [573b23-29] 99c; CH 20 [574b30-575a4] 100c; CH 21 [575b32-34] 101a; CH 22 [576b26-p4] 102a; CH 23 [577a3-5] 103a; CH 24 [577b28-578a4] 103c; CH 26 [578a12-13] 103d; CH 29 [578b22-27] 104b-c; BK VIII, CH 2 [592a23-24] 118c; CH 9 [596a9-13] 122a; BK IX, CH 7 [613a17-b5] 138d-139a; CH 37 [622a15-32] 147d; CH 41 [627b29-628a7] 153a-b; CH 44 [629b27-34] 155a; CH 46 [630b23-26] 156a / Parts of Animals, BK IV, CH 2 [677a20-21] 207a-b / Generation of Animals, BK IV, CH 10 319c-320a,c 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK V [878-898] 72c-d 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 34a 35 LOCKE: An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXVI, SECT 4 218a-b 49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 99b 54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 652d; 655b; 657c-d

6b. The human life span

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 5 esp 5:5, 5:27; 6:3; 9:28-29; 11:10-32; 23:1-2; 25:7-8; 35:28-29; 47:9; 50:26 / Numbers, 33:38-39 / Deuteronomy, 34:7 / Joshua, 24:29—(D) Josue, 24:29 / Psalms, 90:10—(D) Psalms, 89:10 APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 18:9-10—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 18:8 5 EURIPIDES: The Suppliants [1080-1113] 267d-268a 6 HERODOTUS: The History, BK I, 7b-8a; BK III, 93d-94b 7 PLATO: Timaeus, 469a; 475d 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK I, CH 15 [493b32-494a1] 16a / Generation of Animals, BK IV, CH 10 319c-320a,c / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 5 [1361b31-34] 602c 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK IV [693-705] 186a-b 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 29c-30a; 156d-157b; 535d 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK XI [523-548] 310b-311a 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 413b-414a 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 336a-b / The Social Contract, BK III, 419c-d 39 SMITH: The Wealth of Nations, BK I, 33c-34a 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 360b 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 324d; 325c-327a 50 MARX: Capital, 118b-d; 194b-195b passim; 229a-b; 318a-b

6c. The biological characteristics of the stages of life

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 17:15-19; 18:9-15; 21:1-8; 27:1 / Deuteronomy, 34:7 / I Kings, 1:1-4—(D) III Kings, 1:1-4 / Proverbs, 20:29 APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 14:17-18—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 14:18-19 NEW TESTAMENT: John, 21:18 5 AESCHYLUS: Agamemnon [71-82] 52d 5 EURIPIDES: The Suppliants [1080-1113] 267d-268a 6 HERODOTUS: The History, BK VII, 118b 7 PLATO: Republic, BK I, 296a-c / Timaeus, 471d-472a 8 ARISTOTLE: On the Soul, BK I, CH 4 [408b18-29] 638c / On Youth and Old Age, On Life and Death, On Breathing, CH 23-26 724d-726b 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK III, CH 1 [500a26-501b7] 23a-b; CH 2-5 23d-24b; BK IV, CH 11 [518a5]-CH 12 [519a9] 42c-43d; CH 18 [520b7-10] 45b-c; CH 19 [521a31]-CH 20 [521b10] 46b-c; BK V, CH 9 [536b5-8] 63a-b; CH 10 [537b15-20] 64b; BK V, CH 14 71b-73b; CH 19 [551b13-552b5] 78a-79b; CH 30 [556b5-10] 83b; BK VI, CH 3 [561a4-562a22] 87c-88c; BK VI, CH 18-BK VII, CH 12 97b-114a,c passim, esp BK VII, CH 1 106b,d-108a; BK VIII, CH 30 [607b27-33] 133c; BK IX, CH 5 [611b31-a6] 137a; CH 32 [619a16-29] 144d; CH 37 [622a15-31] 147d; CH 44 [629b27-33] 155a / Parts of Animals, BK II, CH 6 [651b20-28] 176d; BK IV, CH 10 [686a5-28] 218a-b / Gait of Animals, CH 11 [710b12-18] 248d / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 18 [725b18-25] 265d-266a; CH 19 [727a2-10] 267a-b; CH 20 [728b23-34] 268d-269a; BK II, CH 6 282d-287a; BK IV, CH 2 [766b27-31] 308b; CH 6 316c-317d; CH 8 [761a5-23] 318d; BK V, CH 1 [778b20-779a13] 321a-d; [780a14-b29] 322b-d; CH 3 [781b30-782a19] 324a-b; CH 3 [783b2]-CH 8 [789b21] 325c-331a,c passim / Politics, BK VII, CH 16 [1335a7-34] 540a-b / Rhetoric, BK II, CH 12 [1389a2-b6] 636b; CH 13 [1390a11-16] 637c; CH 14 [1390b9-11] 638a 10 HIPPOCRATES: On Injuries of the Head, PAR 18 69a-b / On Articulations, PAR 12 96a-b; PAR 29 99c; PAR 41 103c-104b; PAR 52-53 109b-111a; PAR 58 111a-c; PAR 60 113b-d / Aphorisms, SECT I, PAR 13-14 131d; SECT II, PAR 39 133c; PAR 53 133d; SECT III, PAR 3 134a; PAR 18 134d; PAR 24-31 135a-b; SECT VI, PAR 6 140c; PAR 30 141a; PAR 57 141d; SECT VII, PAR 82 144a / On the Sacred Disease, 157b-158b 10 GALEN: On the Natural Faculties, BK II, CH 8, 193a-d 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK III [445-458] 35d-36a; BK IV [1037-1057] 57d 12 MARCUS AURELIUS: Meditations, BK III, SECT 1 259b,d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 70, A 1, REP 7 893d-895d 22 CHAUCER: The Reeve’s Prologue [3862-3896] 224a-b / The Wife of Bath’s Prologue [6051-6062] 263b-264a 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 33b-c; 156d-158a,c; 339a-d; 394a-395b; 406c-408b; 429d-430a 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1 Henry VI, ACT II, SC V [1-16] 12d-13a / 2 Henry IV, ACT I, SC II [201-208] 472a-b / Henry V, ACT V, SC II [167-174] 565a / As You Like It, ACT II, SC VII [137-166] 608d-609a 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT II, SC II [197-206] 42c-d / King Lear, ACT I, SC I [291-312] 247c-d; ACT I, SC IV [148-158] 260a 28 HARVEY: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, 281a-282c; 300b-c / On Animal Generation, 352c; 363d-383c; 391a-c; 449a-454c 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK XI [527-543] 310b-311a 34 NEWTON: Optics, BK I, 384b-385b 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART III, 127a-128a 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 352b-353b 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 336a-b 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 306d-307a; 350b 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART II [11,531-538] 280b 49 DARWIN: The Origin of Species, 11d-12a; 219d-225b passim, esp 219d-220a, 221b-222a; 257c-258a; 377c-381d passim, esp 377d-378c, 381c-d; 511a-525a; 562c-563a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK V, 209a-c; BK VIII, 305b-310d passim; BK X, 391d-394d; BK XIII, 584c; 586c; EPILOGUE I, 659d-660b; 665a-d 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 431b-433a; 714a-715b 54 FREUD: The Origin and Development of Psycho-Analysis, 15a-16c / The Sexual Enlightenment of Children, 119d-120b / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 572d-576a passim, esp 573a-b, 574a-c; 579b-580d / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 746c-d / Civilization and Its Discontents, 770b

7. The causes and occurrence of death: the transition from life to death

4 HOMER: Odyssey, BK XI [215-224] 245b; BK XVII [290-327] 280a-c 7 PLATO: Phaedo, 223c-d; 225b; 246c / Gorgias, 292d / Republic, BK X, 434c-436a / Timaeus, 471d-472a 8 ARISTOTLE: On the Soul, BK III, CH 13 [435b4-19] 668c / On Youth and Old Age, On Life and Death, On Breathing, CH 4-27 715d-726d 9 ARISTOTLE: History of Animals, BK I, CH 4 [489b20-22] 10b-c; BK V, CH 20 [553a12-16] 79d-80a; BK VII, CH 12 [588a7-9] 114c / Parts of Animals, BK II, CH 7 [653a1-7] 178d-179a; BK III, CH 4 [667b32-a14] 195c-d / Generation of Animals, BK V, CH 5 [741b15-24] 282d 10 HIPPOCRATES: The Book of Prognostics, PAR 2-3 19b-20b; PAR 9 21b-c / On Regimen in Acute Diseases, APPENDIX, PAR 9 38b-c / Aphorisms, SECT II, PAR 44 133c; SECT VI, PAR 18 140d 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK III [417-829] 35c-40c 12 MARCUS AURELIUS: Meditations, BK IV, SECT 5 264b; BK VI, SECT 28 276c 17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR VII, CH 6, 24a; TR IX 34b-d 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK XIII, CH 9-11 363c-365c 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 119, A 1, REP 4 604c-607b 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 72, A 5, ANS 115a-116b; Q 85, A 6 182d-184a; Q 88, A 1, ANS 193a-194b 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 156d-157b; 176c-180b; 530a-c 26 SHAKESPEARE: Henry V, ACT II, SC III [1-28] 541a-b 28 HARVEY: On the Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals, 276d-278a; 296a-d / On Animal Generation, 407a-b; 433a-c; 493a-b 30 BACON: The Advancement of Learning, 52d-53a 31 DESCARTES: Objections and Replies, 127c-d 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 4 425b-d; PROP 39 436b-437a 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on Political Economy, 368d-369a / The Social Contract, BK III, 419c-d 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 306d-307a 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 351a-b 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 326b-327a; 383d-384c 50 MARX: Capital, 122c-124a; 194b-195b; 228d-229b; 318a-b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 44b-45b; BK IV, 180d-183c; BK X, 406c-410c; BK XI, 499c-500c; BK XII, 558a-562d; BK XV, 624d-625b; EPILOGUE I, 650d-651a 52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK VI, 149c-150d; BK VII-VIII, 170c-177b 54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 652b-653a; 654c-657d / The Ego and the Id, 708d-709a; 711d-712a

8. The concern of the living with life and death

8a. The love of life: the instinct of self-preservation; the life instinct

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:22-24 / Job, 2:4 / Psalms, 21:4; 34:12-14; 49:6-12; 91:16—(D) Psalms, 20:5; 33:13-15; 48:7-13; 90:16 / Ecclesiastes, 9:4-6 NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 19:16-30 / Mark, 10:17-31 / Luke, 10:25-37 / John, 12:25; 15:13 / I Timothy, 6:17-19 / I Peter, 3:10-11 5 EURIPIDES: Hippolytus [189-197] 226c-d / Alcestis 237a-247a,c esp [629-746] 242c-243c / Iphigenia at Aulis [1211-1252] 436a-c 6 HERODOTUS: The History, BK IV, 140d-141a; BK VI, 191a-b; BK VII, 224d-225a; BK IX, 296c-297a 6 THUCYDIDES: The Peloponnesian War, BK VII, 559b-d 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK IX, CH 9 [1170a13-b8] 423d-424b; BK X, CH 4 [1175a10-22] 429c / Rhetoric, BK II, CH 13 [1389b32-35] 637b 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK III 30a-44a,c passim 12 MARCUS AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 11 258a-b 15 TACITUS: The Histories, BK V, 301d 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK IV, PAR 11 21d-22a; BK VIII, PAR 18 57d-58a; PAR 25 60a / City of God, BK XIX, CH 4, 513a 19 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 75, A 6, ANS 383c-384c 22 CHAUCER: The Nun’s Priest’s Tale [15,282-287] 457b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 86c; 90a; PART II, 115d; 142b-c; 155b-c 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 31d-32c, 184a; 267b-c; 339a-d; 511d-512a 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1 Henry IV, ACT V, SC IV [111-132] 465c 27 SHAKESPEARE: Othello, ACT I, SC III [306-369] 212b-d / King Lear, ACT V, SC III [184-186] 281b 30 BACON: The Advancement of Learning, 51b-c; 72c-73a 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 18, SCHOL-PROP 25 429a-431a 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 156-157 201b-202a 35 LOCKE: Concerning Civil Government, CH II, SECT 6-8 26b-27a; CH III, SECT 16-18 28d-29b 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART III, 124a-129a 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 238a-239b; 459a-460a 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 250b-d 38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK I, 2b 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 330d-331b; 337c; 342d-343a; 343c 42 KANT: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 258b 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART III, PAR 127 45b-c; ADDITIONS, 81 128d-129a 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [602-807] 16b-21a; [1544-1626] 37b-39a; PART II [8909-9126] 216b-221b 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 144a; 344b-345a 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 311a-b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK III, 159d-160a; BK VI, 262d-263a; BK X, 439b-440a; 457a-c; 461d-464a; BK XI, 527a-b; BK XII, 549c-551c; 558a-562d; EPILOGUE I, 665a-d 52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK V, 118b-119a; BK VI, 149c-150d 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 92a-b; 198b; 208a-209b; 700b; 709b 54 FREUD: On Narcissism, 399b / Instincts and their Vicissitudes, 414d-415b / A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 591d-592c; 607d-608a; 615b-616b; 623b-c / Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651d-662b esp 653a-d, 657c-659a, 659d-661c; 663c / The Ego and the Id, 708d-712a passim, esp 708d-709b, 711c; 717c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 790a-b; 791a-d / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 846b-c; 851c-d

8b. The desire for death: the death instinct; the problem of suicide

OLD TESTAMENT: I Samuel, 31:4-6—(D) I Kings, 31:4-6 / II Samuel, 17:23—(D) II Kings, 17:23 / I Chronicles, 10:1-6—(D) I Paralipomenon, 10:1-6 / Job, 3 esp 3:13-22; 6:8-13; 7:13-16,21; 10:1,18-22; 14:13-14; 16:22-17:1; 17:13-16—(D) Job, 3 esp 3:13-22; 6:8-13; 7:13-16,21; 10:1,18-22; 14:13-14; 16:23-17:1; 17:13-16 / Proverbs, 8:36; 11:19; 21:6 / Ecclesiastes, 4:2-3; 6:3-5; 7:1-4—(D) Ecclesiastes, 4:2-3; 6:3-5; 7:2-5 / Isaiah, 28:14-18—(D) Isaias, 28:14-18 / Jeremiah, 8:3; 20:14-18—(D) Jeremias, 8:3; 20:14-18 / Jonah, 4—(D) Jonas, 4 APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4:2—(D) OT, Tobias, 4:2 / Wisdom of Solomon, 1:12-16; 2:23-24—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 1:12-16; 2:23-25 / Ecclesiasticus, 23:14; 30:17, 41:2-3—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 23:18-19; 30:17; 41:3-5 NEW TESTAMENT: John, 11:16 / Acts, 20:24 / Philippians, 1:20-24 / Revelation, 9:6—(D) Apocalypse, 9:6 5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus the King [1297-1415] 111b-112b / Oedipus at Colonus [1211-1248] 125b-c / Antigone [1261-1353] 141d-142d / Ajax [394-865] 146c-150c / Electra [804-822] 162c-d / The Trachiniae [871-1278] 177d-181a,c / Philoctetes [779-809] 189a-b 5 EURIPIDES: Rhesus [756-761] 209d / The Trojan Women [622-683] 275b-d / Helen [252-305] 300c-d / Hecuba [218-582] 354d-357d / Heracles Mad [1088-1393] 374b-377b 6 HERODOTUS: The History, BK I, 9d-10a; 47c-d; BK II, 62d-63a; BK V, 160c-d; BK VI, 199c-d; BK VII, 224d-225a; 245d; BK IX, 303c-304a 7 PLATO: Phaedo, 222a-225c / Laws, BK IX, 753b 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK V, CH 11 [1138a4-13] 386b-c; BK IX, CH 4 [1166b11-13] 419d 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK III [31-93] 30b-31b 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 9 114c-116b; CH 24 129a-d 12 MARCUS AURELIUS: Meditations, BK V, SECT 29 272d-273a; BK VIII, SECT 47 289b-c; BK IX, SECT 3 291d-292a; BK X, SECT 8 297d-298a 13 VIRGIL: Aeneid, BK VI [634-704] 142a-144a; BK IV [450-705] 179b-186b; BK XII [593-613] 370a 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 47a-c / Themistocles, 101c-d / Cato the Younger, 646a-647c / Cleomenes, 668b-d / Marcus Brutus, 814d-815c; 818d-819a; 823b-824a,c / Otho, 875b-876c 15 TACITUS: The Annals, BK VI, 92c-d / The Histories, BK II, 227a-228a 17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR IX 34b-d / Third Ennead, TR II, CH 8, 87b 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK VIII, PAR 18 57d-58a; PAR 25 60a / City of God, BK I, CH 17-27 140a-146a; BK XIII, CH 4 361d-362a; BK XIX, CH 4 511a-513c 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy, HELL, XI [40-45] 15c; XIII 17d-19c 22 CHAUCER: Troilus and Cressida, BK IV, STANZA 72-74 98a / The Pardoner’s Tale [12,645-672] 378b 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 69d 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 99b-100a; 167a-173d; 294b-297b; 340d-342a; 358b-362a; 511d-512a 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1 Henry VI, ACT II, SC V [1-16] 12d-13a; [107-114] 13d-14a / Richard II, ACT V, SC V [1-41] 349d-350a / Julius Caesar, ACT I, SC III [89-102] 573c 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT I, SC II [129-159] 32d-33a; ACT II, SC II [211-222] 42d, ACT III, SC I [56-89] 47c-d; ACT V, SC I [1-36] 64c-d; [241-273] 66d-67b / Othello, ACT I, SC III [306-369] 212b-d / King Lear, ACT IV, SC VI [1-79] 273b-274b / Antony and Cleopatra, ACT IV, SC XV [63-91] 344c-345a; ACT V, SC II [207-316] 348d-350a / Cymbeline, ACT III, SC IV [73-101] 467c-d / Sonnets, LXVI 596b 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 18, SCHOL 429a-d; PROP 20, SCHOL 430a-b 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK X [966-1028] 295b-296b / Samson Agonistes [508-520] 350b-351a 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 156-157 201b-202a 35 LOCKE: Concerning Civil Government, CH II, SECT 6 26b-c; CH XIV, SECT 168 64b-c 36 SWIFT: Gulliver’s Travels, PART III, 127a-128a 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 85a-d; 173d-176d esp 175c-d, 176c-d; 182d-184a 38 MONTESQUIEU: The Spirit of Laws, BK XIV, 107a-b 38 ROUSSEAU: A Discourse on the Origin of Inequality, 342d-343a 41 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 95c-96a 42 KANT: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 258b; 269a; 272b-c 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 214b-c 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of Right, PART I, PAR 70 31a; ADDITIONS, 45 123c-d / The Philosophy of History, PART I, 224d-225a; 228b 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [602-807] 16b-21a; [1544-1626] 37b-39a 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 356b-357a 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK III, 159d-160a; BK V, 200c-d; BK VIII, 311a-313a; 337d-338a; BK XII, 535b-c; 558a-562d 53 JAMES: The Principles of Psychology, 204b 54 FREUD: Beyond the Pleasure Principle 639a-663d esp 651d-653a, 663c-d / The Ego and the Id, 708d-709c; 711c-712a; 714c-715a; 716b-717a,c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 790a-791d / New Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis, 849c-851d esp 851c-d

8c. The contemplation and fear of death: the attitude of the hero, the philosopher, the martyr

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 3:19 / Numbers, 23:10 / Deuteronomy, 30:15-20 / II Samuel, 14:14; 22:5-7—(D) II Kings, 14:14; 22:5-7 / I Kings, 2:1-2—(D) III Kings, 2:1-2 / I Chronicles, 29:15—(D) I Paralipomenon, 29:15 / Job, 6-7; 14; 17; 20:4-11; 21:23-26; 24:22-24; 30:23-24; 34:15 / Psalms, 6 esp 6:5; 13:3; 18:4-6; 23 esp 23:4; 31:12; 39:4-5; 49; 55:4-8; 88; 89:47-48; 90:5-12; 103:14-16; 115:17; 116 esp 116:3, 116:15; 144:3-4—(D) Psalms, 6 esp 6:6; 12:4; 17:5-7; 22 esp 22:4; 30:13; 38:5-6; 48; 54:5-9; 87; 88:48-49; 89:5-12; 102:14-16; 113:17; 114-115 esp 114:3, 115:15; 143:3-4 / Proverbs, 7:7-27 esp 7:27; 8:36; 10:2; 11:4,19; 12:28; 13:14; 14:27,32; 18:21; 30:15-16 / Ecclesiastes, 2:16; 3:1-2,18-21; 7:1; 8:8; 9:1-12; 11:7-12:7—(D) Ecclesiastes, 2:16; 3:1-2,18-21; 7:2; 8:8; 9:1-12; 11:7-12:7 / Song of Solomon, 8:6—(D) Canticle of Canticles, 8:6 / Isaiah, 9:2; 25:8; 38:10-19; 40:6-8—(D) Isaias, 9:2; 25:8; 38:10-19; 40:6-8 / Jeremiah, 9:17-22; 21:8-10—(D) Jeremias, 9:17-22; 21:8-10 / Ezekiel, 18:32; 33:11—(D) Ezechiel, 18:32; 33:11 / Hosea, 13:14—(D) Osee, 13:14 / Habakkuk, 2:5—(D) Habacuc, 2:5 APOCRYPHA: Tobit, 4:10—(D) OT, Tobias, 4:11 / Wisdom of Solomon, 1:12-2:5; 2:24-3:6; 4:7-5:23; 16:14—(D) OT, Book of Wisdom, 1:12-2:5; 2:24-3:6; 4:7-5:24; 16:14 / Ecclesiasticus, 8:7; 10:10-11; 14:11-19; 16:30-17:2; 17:27-28; 18:9-12; 22:11-12; 28:18-21; 33:14; 38:16-23; 41:1-4—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 8:8; 10:12-13; 14:11-20; 16:31-17:3; 17:27; 18:8-11; 22:10-13; 28:22-25; 33:15; 38:16-24; 41:1-7 / Baruch, 2:17—(D) OT, Baruch, 2:17 / II Maccabees, 6:18-7:42—(D) OT, II Machabees, 6:18-7:42 NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 4:16; 10:28 / Luke, 1:79 / John, 5:24; 8:51-59; 11 esp 11:23-27; 12:24-25; 15:13 / Acts, 7:54-60—(D) Acts, 7:54-59 / Romans, 5-8; 14:7-8 / I Corinthians, 15 / II Corinthians, 1:9-10; 4:9-5:9 / Philippians, 1:21-24 / I Thessalonians, 4:13-5:11—(D) I Thessalonians, 4:12-5:11 / II Timothy, 1:10; 4:6-8 / Hebrews, 2:9-18; 9:27-28 / James, 4:13-16 / I John, 3:14 / Revelation, 2:10-11; 6:8; 9:6; 14:13; 20:6; 21:4—(D) Apocalypse, 2:10-11; 6:8; 9:6; 14:13; 20:6; 21:4 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK VI [144-151] 41c; [482-493] 45a; BK XII [290-328] 85b-c; BK XVIII [65-126] 130d-131c; BK XIX [198-237] 139a-b; BK XXI [462-467] 153a; BK XXII 155a-160d esp [289-305] 158b, [355-366] 159a / Odyssey, BK XI 243a-249d esp [477-489] 247d 5 AESCHYLUS: Prometheus Bound [249-253] 42d 5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [1579-1779] 128c-130a,c / Antigone [332-375] 134a-b 5 EURIPIDES: Rhesus [756-761] 209d / Alcestis 237a-247a,c / The Heracleidae [593-596] 253b / The Suppliants [1108-1113] 268a / Hecuba [342-582] 355d-357d / Heracles Mad [275-326] 367c-d / Iphigenia at Aulis 425a-439d esp [1211-1252] 436a-c 6 HERODOTUS: The History, BK I, 6c-10a; 20b-21a; BK II, 64d-65a; BK V, 183b-c; BK VII, 224c-225a; BK VIII, 281d-282a; BK IX, 303c-304a 6 THUCYDIDES: The Peloponnesian War, BK II, 395c-399a esp 397d-398d; 400d-401a 7 PLATO: Laches, 34d / Symposium, 166b-c / Apology, 205d-206d; 207c-d; 211b-212a,c / Crito, 215d-216a; 218b-d / Phaedo 220a-251d esp 230d-235a / Gorgias, 286b-287c; 292a-b / Republic, BK I, 297a-b; BK III, 324c-325b; BK VI, 374a-d / Seventh Letter, 805d-806a 9 ARISTOTLE: Ethics, BK III, CH 6-9 361a-364b esp CH 6 [1115a24-b6] 361b-c, CH 9 [1117b7-15] 364a / Rhetoric, BK II, CH 5 [1382a19-27] 628b 12 LUCRETIUS: On the Nature of Things, BK I [102-158] 2b-3a; BK II [569-580] 22b; BK III [31-93] 30b-31b; [830-1094] 40c-44a,c 12 EPICTETUS: Discourses, BK I, CH 4 108d-110a, CH 9 114c-116b; CH 24 129a-d; CH 27 132b-133b; CH 29 134d-138a; BK II, CH 1 138b,d-140c; CH 16 156b-158d; BK III, CH 5 180d-181d; CH 22 195a-201a; BK IV, CH 1 213a-223d; CH 4 225a-228a; CH 10 238d-240d 12 MARCUS AURELIUS: Meditations, BK II, SECT 11-12 258a-c; SECT 14 258d; SECT 17 259b-d; BK III, SECT 1 259b,d; SECT 3 260b; BK IV, SECT 5 264b; SECT 48 267d-268a; SECT 50 268c; BK VI, SECT 24 276b; SECT 47 278d; SECT 49 279a; BK VII, SECT 23 281b; SECT 32,35 282a; BK VIII, SECT 25 287b-c; SECT 31 287d; SECT 58 290d; BK IX, SECT 3 291d-292a; SECT 21 293b-c; BK XII, SECT 35-36 310c-d 13 VIRGIL: Georgics, I [490-493] 65b / Aeneid, BK VI 211a-235a 14 PLUTARCH: Pericles, 139c / Pelopidas, 232a-d 15 TACITUS: The Annals, BK XI, 101a-b; BK XV, 172c-173d; BK XVI, 180c-d; 181d-182a; 183d-184a,c / The Histories, BK II, 226d-228a; BK III, 256a-c 17 PLOTINUS: First Ennead, TR IV, CH 16 18d-19b; TR VI, CH 6, 24a-b; TR VII, CH 3 26d-27a 18 AUGUSTINE: Confessions, BK IV, PAR 7-14 20d-23a; BK VI, PAR 18-19 40d-41b; BK VIII, PAR 18 57d-58a; PAR 25 60a; BK IX, PAR 23-37 68a-71b / City of God, BK I, CH 11 136d-137a; BK IX, CH 11 291b; BK XIII, CH 4 361d-362a; CH 7-8 362d-363c; BK XIX, CH 8 515c-516a 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 61, A 3, ANS 56b-57a; PART III SUPPL, Q 96, A 6 1058a-1061b 21 DANTE: Divine Comedy 22 CHAUCER: The Knight’s Tale [3017-3056] 209b-210a / The Second Nun’s Tale [15,787-800] 467a 23 HOBBES: Leviathan, PART I, 79c-d 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 6d-10a; 26d-36b; 99b-100a; 115b-121c; 124c-125a; 167a-173d; 176c-180b; 211b-212a; 294b-297b; 327d-329d; 339a-d; 365b-366b; 402c-403c; 404d-405a; 470b-c; 473d-477b; 503b-504c; 508a-512a; 529c-530c; 535c-536a 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1 Henry VI, ACT I, SC V [1-32] 12d-13a / 3 Henry VI, ACT V, SC II [5-28] 100a-b / Richard III, ACT I, SC IV 114d-117c / Romeo and Juliet, ACT IV, SC V [1-95] 312d-314a; ACT V, SC III [74-222] 316c-318b / Richard II, ACT III, SC I [144-177] 337a-b / 1 Henry IV, ACT V, SC IV [111-132] 465c / Julius Caesar, ACT III, SC III [32-37] 578c; ACT V, SC I [98-110] 581c 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT I, SC II [68-106] 32b-c; ACT III, SC I [56-90] 47c-d; ACT IV, SC I [20-33] 58a-b; ACT V, SC I [83-129] 65b-d; [202-322] 66c-67d / Measure for Measure, ACT III, SC I [1-43] 186d-187a; [117-136] 188a-b / Othello, ACT V, SC II [7-15] 239a / Macbeth, ACT I, SC IV [1-11] 287b; ACT V, SC III [19-28] 307d; SC V [19-28] 308d-309a / Antony and Cleopatra, ACT IV, SC XV [63-91] 344c-345a; ACT V, SC II [207-316] 348d-350a / Pericles, ACT I, SC I [41-55] 422b / Cymbeline, ACT IV, SC II [203-332] 475b-476d; ACT V, SC IV [3-29] 481a-b; [152-215] 482d-483b / The Tempest, ACT IV, SC I [146-158] 543b / Sonnets, LXXI 598c-d 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 237b-c; 267a-b; 280b-c; 366d-367a, 427a-429d 30 BACON: The Advancement of Learning, 26a-c; 73d-74a 31 SPINOZA: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 67 444d-445a; PART V, PROP 38-39 461d-462c 32 MILTON: Paradise Lost, BK X [782-844] 291b-292b 33 PASCAL: Pensées, 63 180a; 166,168-169 203a; 199 210b; 210 211b; 215-216 212a; 481 257b 36 STERNE: Tristram Shandy, 388a-399b; 459a-460a; 466b 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 86c-88b 40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 94a-b; 186a; 217d-220d esp 219c-220d; 327d-328a; 375b-376c; 645c-d 41 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 238c 42 KANT: Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals, 258c; 269a 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 93d-94b; 102b; 167a; 169d; 174b-c; 238b; 347a-c; 394a-c; 399d-400a; 573b-574a 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 197c-d; PART I, 245b-d; 255a-257a; PART IV, 339b-d 47 GOETHE: Faust, PART I [1544-1626] 37b-39a; PART II [8909-9126] 216b-221b; [11,384-401] 277a-b 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 27a-28a; 168a-169b; 209b; 238a; 316a-b; 318b; 331a-332a; 351a-b 49 DARWIN: The Descent of Man, 311a-b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 34b-c; 37d-47b; BK III, 77c-81b; 97a-106d; BK III, 146d-147c; BK IV, 179b-180d; BK V, 194c-d; 200c-d; 216d-218b; 226d-227a, BK VII, 288b-c; BK VIII, 311a-313a; BK IX, 369a-372a; BK X, 416c-417b; 433d-434a; 439b-440a; 457a-c; 461d-464a; BK XI, 481a-482a; BK XII, 549c-551c; 558a-562d; BK XIII, 569d-570a; BK XIV, 607c-608d; BK XV, 614a-618b; 636c-637c 52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK II, 26a; BK V, 118b-119a; BK VI, 148d-150d esp 149c-150d 54 FREUD: The Interpretation of Dreams, 243a-c / The Ego and the Id, 716c-717a,c / Inhibitions, Symptoms, and Anxiety, 735d-736b / Thoughts for the Times on War and Death, 761c-766d

8d. The ceremonials of death: the rites of burial in war and peace

OLD TESTAMENT: Genesis, 23; 49:1-50:13 / Leviticus, 19:28; 21:1-5 / Deuteronomy, 14:1-2; 33 / II Samuel, 1:17-27; 3:31-36—(D) II Kings, 1:17-27; 3:31-36 / II Chronicles, 16:13-14—(D) II Paralipomenon, 16:13-14 / Isaiah, 3:16-26; 15:1-4—(D) Isaias, 3:16-26, 15:1-4 / Jeremiah, 16:6—(D) Jeremias, 16:6 / Ezekiel, 7:18; 24:16-23—(D) Ezechiel, 7:18; 24:16-23 / Amos, 8:10 APOCRYPHA: Ecclesiasticus, 22:11-12; 38:16-23—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 22:10-13; 38:16-22 NEW TESTAMENT: Matthew, 8:21-22; 27:57-60 / Mark, 15:43-16:1 / Luke, 23:50-24:1 / John, 19:38-42 / James, 5:14-15 4 HOMER: Iliad, BK XI [446-455] 76d-77a; BK XIX [198-237] 139a-b; BK XXIII [247-272] 157d-158a; BK XXIII-XXIV 161a-179d / Odyssey, BK XI [51-80] 243c-d; BK XXIV [1-190] 317a-319a 5 AESCHYLUS: Seven Against Thebes [1011-1084] 38b-39a,c 5 SOPHOCLES: Oedipus at Colonus [1579-1779] 128c-130a,c / Antigone 131a-142d / Ajax [1040-1421] 152a-155a,c / Electra [404-471] 159b-d / The Trachiniae [1191-1278] 180b-181a,c 5 EURIPIDES: The Suppliants 258a-269a,c / The Trojan Women [1123-1255] 279c-280c / The Phoenician Maidens [1625-1670] 392b-d 6 HERODOTUS: The History, BK I, 38a-b; BK II, 65c-66c; BK III, 94b-c; BK IV, 128c-d; 136a-d; 157c; BK V, 160d-161a; BK VI, 196b-c; BK VII, 235b-c; BK IX, 293a; 305a-c; 306b-c 6 THUCYDIDES: The Peloponnesian War, BK II, 395c-399a; 400c-d 7 PLATO: Republic, BK V, 367b / Laws, BK XII, 793a-794a 13 VIRGIL: Georgics, IV [451-558] 95b-99a / Aeneid, BK III [60-68] 148b-149a; BK IV [474-705] 180a-186b; BK VI [212-235] 216b-217b; [295-383] 219a-221a; BK IX [207-223] 284b-285a; BK X [898-908] 327a; BK XI [182-212] 333a-b 14 PLUTARCH: Lycurgus, 46a-b / Numa Pompilius, 55b-c / Poplicola, 80d; 86a,c / Coriolanus, 192c-d / Pelopidas, 245a-d / Pompey, 537d-538a,c / Alexander, 574c-575a / Cato the Younger, 623c-624a / Demetrius, 747c-d / Marcus Brutus, 810b-d 15 TACITUS: The Annals, BK I, 3c-4a; BK III, 45d-46a; BK XVI, 177b-c 18 AUGUSTINE: City of God, BK I, CH 12-13 137a-138b; BK VIII, CH 26-27 283c-285d 20 AQUINAS: Summa Theologica, PART III, Q 65, A 1, ANS 879c-881d; A 2, ANS and REP 5 881d-882c; A 3, ANS 882d-883d; PART III SUPPL, Q 71 900d-917b 22 CHAUCER: The Knight’s Tale [859-1004] 174a-176b 25 MONTAIGNE: Essays, 5a-10a; 32b-c; 36a-b; 405a-c; 473d-477b; 483b-484a 26 SHAKESPEARE: 1 Henry IV, ACT V, SC IV [77-101] 465a-b / Julius Caesar, ACT V, SC V [76-81] 596c 27 SHAKESPEARE: Hamlet, ACT V, SC I [1-35] 64c-d; [241-266] 66d-67a / Cymbeline, ACT IV, SC II [186-290] 475a-476b 29 CERVANTES: Don Quixote, PART I, 427d-429d 32 MILTON: Epitaph on the Marchioness of Winchester 14a-15b / On Shakespear. 1630 16a / On the University Carrier 16b / Another on the Same 17a-b / Lycidas 27b-32a / On the Death of a Fair Infant 57a-59a esp [1-21] 57a-b / Sonnets, XIV-XV 66a-b; XIX 67b-68a 37 FIELDING: Tom Jones, 34d 40 GIBBON: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 263a; 381a-d; 513b; 568d-569a 44 BOSWELL: The Life of Samuel Johnson, 193a-b 46 HEGEL: The Philosophy of History, INTRO, 197c-d; PART I, 211d-212c; 252a-c; 255a-257a 48 MELVILLE: Moby Dick, 25b-28a; 350b-354b 51 TOLSTOY: War and Peace, BK I, 38b; 43b-44b; BK XI, 512a-b; BK XII, 549d-551c; BK XV, 624d-625b 52 DOSTOEVSKY: The Brothers Karamazov, BK VII, 171a-c 54 FREUD: A General Introduction to Psycho-Analysis, 510b-c / Thoughts for the Times on War and Death, 762a-b

CROSS-REFERENCES

• For the doctrine of soul as the principle of life, see ANIMAL 1a, 1c; SOUL 1b.
• For the general issue concerning continuity or hierarchy in nature, see ANIMAL 1b-1c, 2c; EVOLUTION 4a, 4c, 7b; MAN 1a-1c, 8b-8c; NATURE 3b; WORLD 6b.
• For the contrast between the powers and activities of living and non-living bodies, see ANIMAL 4a; CHANGE 6c, 8a-8b, 9a-9b, 10a-10b; and for other discussions of the distinctive powers of plant, animal, and human life, see ANIMAL 1a(1)-1a(4), 1c-1c(2), 8d; MAN 1a-1c, 4a-4c; SOUL 2c-2c(3).
• For the anatomical and physiological considerations relevant to the analysis of vital powers and operations, see ANIMAL 3a-3d, 4b-4c, 5a-5g, 6a-7, 8b-8c(4).
• For discussions of animal sensitivity and intelligence, see ANIMAL 1a(1), 1c(2); MAN 1c; MEMORY AND IMAGINATION 1; MIND 3a-3b; SENSE 2b-2c.
• For other considerations of health and disease, see MEDICINE 4, 5a-5d.
• For a discussion of the human life cycle, see MAN 6c.
• For other discussions of man’s attitude toward death, see HAPPINESS 4b; IMMORTALITY 1; and for matters relevant to the special problem of the life and death instincts, see ANIMAL 1d; DESIRE 3a; HABIT 3a.
• For another discussion of sleeping and waking, see ANIMAL 1a(5).
• For another discussion of the relation between the living organism and its environment, see ANIMAL 1b.

ADDITIONAL READINGS

Listed below are works not included in Great Books of the Western World, but relevant to the idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:

I. Works by authors represented in this collection. II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.

For the date, place, and other facts concerning the publication of the works cited, consult the Bibliography of Additional Readings which follows the last chapter of The Great Ideas.

I.

• DANTE. Convivio (The Banquet), SECOND TREATISE, CH 8
• F. BACON. “Of Death,” “Of Youth and Age,” in Essays
• GOETHE. Wilhelm Meister
• HEGEL. The Phenomenology of Mind, V, A (2)
• —. Science of Logic, VOL II, SECT III, CH I
• DOSTOEVSKY. The House of the Dead
• TOLSTOY. Three Deaths
• —. Memoirs of a Madman
• —. The Death of Ivan Ilyich

II.

• EPICURUS. Letter to Menoeceus
• CICERO. Tusculan Disputations, I
• —. De Senectute (Of Old Age)
• SUÁREZ. Disputationes Metaphysicae, XXX (14)
• CALDERÓN. Life Is a Dream
• KING. The Exequy
• BROWNE. Hydriotaphia
• GRAY. Elegy Written in a Country Church-Yard
• VOLTAIRE. “Life,” in A Philosophical Dictionary
• E. DARWIN. The Loves of the Plants
• BICHAT. General Anatomy, Applied to Physiology and Medicine
• BRYANT. Thanatopsis
• SHELLEY. Adonais
• HAZLITT. Table Talk, XXXIII
• LAMB. “New Year’s Eve,” in Essays of Elia
• COMTE. The Positive Philosophy, BK V
• SCHWANN. Microscopical Researches into the Accordance in the Structure and Growth of Animals and Plants
• WHEWELL. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, VOL I, BK IX
• R. BROWNING. The Bishop Orders His Tomb at Saint Praxed’s
• EMERSON. Threnody
• SCHOPENHAUER. The World as Will and Idea, VOL III, SUP, CH 42
• —. On the Doctrine of the Indestructibility of Our True Nature by Death
• —. “On Suicide,” in Studies in Pessimism
• LOTZE. Microcosmos, BK I
• VIRCHOW. Cellular Pathology
• BERNARD. Introduction to Experimental Medicine
• STEVENSON. “Æs Triplex,” in Virginibus Puerisque
• T. H. HUXLEY. Methods and Results, III
• WEISMANN. “Life and Death,” in VOL I, Essays upon Heredity and Kindred Biological Problems
• TENNYSON. Crossing the Bar
• FRAZER. The Golden Bough, PART III; PART V, CH 13; PART VI, CH 9
• HERTWIG. The Cell
• PEARSON. The Chances of Death
• ANDREYEV. Lazarus
• DRIESCH. The Science and Philosophy of the Organism
• LOEB. The Mechanistic Conception of Life
• JOYCE. Dubliners, esp “The Dead”
• OSLER. A Way of Life
• UNAMUNO. Mist
• D. W. THOMPSON. On Growth and Form
• BERGSON. Creative Evolution
• BERGSON. Mind-Energy, CH I
• UEXKÜLL. Theoretical Biology
• J. S. HALDANE and J. G. PRIESTLEY. Respiration
• PEARL. The Biology of Death
• LILLIE. Protoplasmic Action and Nervous Action
• SANTAYANA. Scepticism and Animal Faith, CH 23
• DEWEY. Experience and Nature, CH 7
• JUNG. Spirit and Life
• G. N. LEWIS. The Anatomy of Science, ESSAY VII
• HENDERSON. Blood
• J. S. HALDANE. Mechanism, Life and Personality
• —. The Sciences and Philosophy, LECT I-VI
• WOODGER. Biological Principles
• CANNON. The Wisdom of the Body
• GOLDSTEIN. The Organism
• WHITEHEAD. Modes of Thought, LECT VII
• SHERRINGTON. The Integrative Action of the Nervous System
• —. Man on His Nature
• SCHRÖDINGER. What Is Life?