Chapter 10: CHANGE

INTRODUCTION

FROM the pre-Socratic physicists and the ancient philosophers to Darwin, Marx, and James—and, in our own day, Dewey and Whitehead—the fact of change has been a major focus of speculative and scientific inquiry.

Except by Parmenides and his school, the existence of change has never been denied. Nor can it be without rejecting all sense-perception as illusory, which is precisely what Zeno’s paradoxes seem to do, according to one interpretation of them. But if argument cannot refute the testimony of the senses, neither can reasoning support it. The fact of change, because it is evident to the senses, does not need proof.

That change is, is evident, but what change is, is neither evident nor easy to define. What principles or factors are common to every sort of change, how change or becoming is related to permanence or being, what sort of existence belongs to mutable things and to change itself—these are questions to which answers are not obtainable merely by observation. Nor will simple observation, without the aid of experiment, measurement, and mathematical calculation, discover the laws and properties of motion.

The analysis of change or motion has been a problem for the philosophers of nature. They have been concerned with the definition of change, its relation to being, the classification of the kinds of change. The measurement of motion, on the other hand, and the mathematical formulation of its laws have occupied the experimental natural scientists. Both natural philosophy and natural science share a common subject matter, though they approach it by different methods and with different interests. Both are entitled to use the name “physics” for their subject matter.

The Greek word physis from which “physics” comes has, as its Latin equivalent, the word natura from which “nature” comes. In their original significance, both words had reference to the sensible world of changing things, or to its underlying principle—to the ultimate source of change. The physics of the philosopher and the physics of the empirical scientist are alike inquiries concerning the nature of things, not in every respect but in regard to their change and motion. The conclusions of both inquiries have metaphysical implications for the nature of the physical world and for the character of physical existence.

The philosopher draws these implications for being from the study of becoming. The scientist, in turn, draws upon philosophical distinctions in order to define the objects of his study. Galileo, for example, in separating the problem of freely falling bodies from the motion of projectiles, employs the traditional philosophical distinction between natural and violent motion. The analysis of time and space (basic variables in Newtonian mechanics), the distinction between discontinuous and continuous change, and the problem of the divisibility of a continuous motion—these are philosophical considerations presupposed by the scientific measurement of motion.

WE HAVE so far used the words “change” and “motion,” as well as “becoming,” as if all three were interchangeable in meaning. That is somewhat inaccurate, even for the ancients who regarded all kinds of change except one as motions; it is much less accurate for the moderns who have tended to restrict the meaning of “motion” to local motion or change of place. It is necessary, therefore, to examine briefly the kinds of change and to indicate the problems which arise with these distinctions.

In his physical treatises, Aristotle distinguishes four kinds of change. “When the change from contrary to contrary is in quantity,” he writes, “it is ‘growth and diminution’; when it is in place, it is ‘motion’; when it is… in quality, it is ‘alteration’; but when nothing persists of which the resultant is a property (or an ‘accident’ in any sense of the term), it is ‘coming to be,’ and the converse change is ‘passing away.’” Aristotle also uses other pairs of words—“generation” and “corruption,” “becoming” and “perishing”—to name the last kind of change.

Of the four kinds of change, only the last is not called “motion.” But in the context of saying that “becoming cannot be a motion,” Aristotle also remarks that “every motion is a kind of change.” He does not restrict the meaning of motion to change in place, which is usually called “local motion” or “locomotion.” There are, then, according to Aristotle’s vocabulary, three kinds of motion: (1) local motion, in which bodies change from place to place; (2) alteration or qualitative motion, in which bodies change with respect to such attributes as color, texture, or temperature; (3) increase and decrease, or quantitative motion, in which bodies change in size. And, in addition, there is the one kind of change which is not motion—generation and corruption. This consists in the coming to be or passing away of a body which, while it has being, exists as an individual substance of a certain sort.

Becoming and perishing are most readily exemplified by the birth and death of living things, but Aristotle also includes the transformation of water into ice or vapor as examples of generation and corruption. One distinctive characteristic of generation and corruption, in Aristotle’s conception of this type of change, is their instantaneity. He thinks that the other three kinds of change are continuous processes, taking time, whereas things come into being or pass away instantaneously. Aristotle thus applies the word “motion” only to the continuous changes which time can measure. He never says that time is the measure of change, but only of motion.

But the contrast between the one mode of change which is not motion and the three kinds of motion involves more than this difference with regard to time and continuity. Aristotle’s analysis considers the subject of change—that which undergoes transformation—and the starting-point and goal of motion. “Every motion,” he says, “proceeds from something and to something, that which is directly in motion being distinct from that to which it is in motion and that from which it is in motion; for instance, we may take the three things ‘wood,’ ‘hot,’ and ‘cold,’ of which the first is that which is in motion, the second is that to which the motion proceeds, and the third is that from which it proceeds.”

In the alteration which occurs when the wood changes quality, just as in the increase or decrease which occurs with a body’s change in quantity and in the local motion which occurs with a body’s change of place, that which changes persists throughout the change as the same kind of substance. The wood does not cease to be wood when it becomes hot or cold; the stone does not cease to be a stone when it rolls from here to there, or the organism an animal of a certain kind when it grows in size. In all these cases, “the substratum”—that which is the subject of change—“persists and changes in its own properties. … The body, although persisting as the same body, is now healthy and now ill; and the bronze is now spherical and at another time angular, and yet remains the same bronze.”

Because the substance of the changing thing remains the same while changing in its properties—i.e., in such attributes or accidents as quality, quantity, and place—Aristotle groups the three kinds of motion together as accidental change. The changing thing does not come to be or pass away absolutely, but only in a certain respect. In contrast, generation and corruption involve a change in the very substance of a thing. “When nothing perceptible persists in its identity as a substratum, and the thing changes as a whole,” then, according to Aristotle, “it is a coming-to-be of one substance, and the passing-away of another.”

In such becoming or perishing, it is matter itself rather than a body or a substance which is transformed. Matter takes on or loses the form of a certain kind of substance. For example, when the nutriment is assimilated to the form of a living body, the bread or corn becomes the flesh and blood of a man. When an animal dies, its body decomposes into the elements of inorganic matter. Because it is a change of substance itself, Aristotle calls the one kind of change which is not motion substantial change, and speaks of it as “a coming-to-be or passing-away simply”—that is, not in a certain respect, but absolutely or “without qualification.”

These distinctions are involved in a long tradition of discussion and controversy. They cannot be affirmed or denied without opposite sides being taken on the fundamental issues concerning substance and accident, matter and form, and the causes of change or motion. The adoption or rejection of these distinctions affects one’s view of the difference between inorganic and organic change, and the difference between the motions of matter and the changes which take place in mind. The statement of certain problems is determined accordingly; as, for example, the problem of the transmutation of the elements, which persists in various forms from the physics of the ancients through medieval alchemy and the beginnings of modern chemistry to present considerations of radioactivity and atomic fission.

SINCE THE 17th century, motion has been identified with local motion. “I can conceive no other kind” of motion, Descartes writes, “and do not consider that we ought to conceive any other in nature.” As is expressed “in common parlance,” motion, he says, “is nothing more than the action by which any body passes from one place to another.”

This can hardly be taken to mean that change of place is the only observable type of change. That other kinds of change are observable cannot be denied. The science of mechanics or dynamics may be primarily or exclusively concerned with local motions, but other branches of natural science, certainly chemistry, deal with qualitative transformations; and the biological sciences study growth and decay, birth and death.

The emphasis on local motion as the only kind of motion, while it does not exclude apparent changes of other sorts, does raise a question about their reality. The question can be put in several ways. Are the various apparently different kinds of change really distinct, or can they all be reduced to aspects of one underlying mode of change which is local motion? Even supposing that the kinds of change are not reducible to one another, is local motion primary in the sense that it is involved in all the others?

When mechanics dominates the physical sciences (as has been so largely the case in modern times), there is a tendency to reduce all the observable diversity of change to various appearances of local motion. Newton, for example, explicitly expresses this desire to formulate all natural phenomena in terms of the mechanics of moving particles. In the Preface to the first edition of his Mathematical Principles, after recounting his success in dealing with celestial phenomena, he says, “I wish we could derive the rest of the phenomena of Nature by the same kind of reasoning from mechanical principles, for I am induced by many reasons to suspect that they may all depend upon certain forces by which the particles of bodies, by some causes hitherto unknown, are either mutually impelled towards one another, and cohere in regular figures, or are repelled and recede from one another.”

The notion that all change can be reduced to the results of local motion is not, however, of modern origin. Lucretius expounds the theory of the Greek atomists that all the phenomena of change can be explained by reference to the local motion of indivisible particles coming together and separating. Change of place is the only change which occurs on the level of the ultimate physical reality. The atoms neither come to be nor pass away, nor change in quality or size.

But though we find the notion in ancient atomism, it is only in modern physics that the emphasis upon local motion tends to exclude all other kinds of change. It is characteristic of what James calls “the modern mechanico-physical philosophy” to begin “by saying that the only facts are collocations and motions of primordial solids, and the only laws the changes of motion which changes in collocation bring.” James quotes Helmholtz to the effect that “the ultimate goal of theoretic physics is to find the last unchanging causes of the processes of Nature.” If, to this end, “we imagine the world composed of elements with unalterable qualities,” then, Helmholtz continues, “the only changes that can remain in such a world are spatial changes, i.e., movements, and the only outer relations which can modify the action of the forces are spatial too, or, in other words, the forces are motor forces dependent for their effect on spatial relations.”

In the history of physics, Aristotle represents the opposite view. No one of the four kinds of change which he distinguishes has for him greater physical reality than the others. Just as quality cannot be reduced to quantity, or either of these to place, so in his judgment the motions associated with these terms are irreducible to one another. Yet Aristotle does assign to local motion a certain primacy. “Motion in its most general and primary sense,” he writes, “is change of place, which we call locomotion.” He does not mean merely that this is the primary sense of the word, but rather that no other kind of motion can occur without local motion being somehow involved in the process. Showing how increase and decrease depends on alteration, and how that in turn depends on change of place, he says that “of the three kinds of motion… it is this last, which we call locomotion, that must be primary.”

THE SHIFT IN MEANING of the word “motion” would not by itself mark a radical departure in the theory of change, but it is accompanied by a shift in thought which has the most radical consequences. At the same time that motion is identified with local motion, Descartes conceives motion as something completely actual and thoroughly intelligible. For the ancients, becoming of any sort had both less reality and less intelligibility than being.

Aristotle had defined motion as the actuality of that which is potential in a respect in which it is still potential to some degree. According to what Descartes calls its strict as opposed to its popular meaning, motion is “the transference of one part of matter or one body from the vicinity of those bodies that are in immediate contact with it, and which we regard as in repose, into the vicinity of others.” This definition—contrasted with the Aristotelian conception which it generally supersedes in the subsequent tradition of natural science—is as revolutionary as the Cartesian analytical geometry is by comparison with the Euclidean. Nor is it an unconnected fact that the analytical geometry prepares the way for the differential calculus that is needed to measure variable motions, their velocities, and their accelerations.

The central point on which the two definitions are opposed constitutes one of the most fundamental issues in the philosophy of nature. Does motion involve a transition from potential to actual existence, or only the substitution of one actual state for another—only a “transportation,” as Descartes says, from one place to another?

While motion is going on, the moving thing, according to Aristotle’s definition, must be partly potential and partly actual in the same respect. The leaf turning red, while it is altering, has not yet fully reddened. When it becomes as red as it can get, it can no longer change in that respect. Before it began to change, it was actually green; and since it could become red, it was potentially red. But while the change is in process, the potentiality of the leaf to become red is being actualized. This actualization progresses until the change is completed.

The same analysis would apply to a ball in motion. Until it comes to rest in a given place, its potentiality for being there is undergoing progressive actualization. In short, motion involves some departure from pure potentiality in a given respect, and never complete attainment of full actuality in that same respect. When there is no departure from potentiality, motion has not yet begun; when the attainment of actuality is complete, the motion has terminated.

The Aristotelian definition of motion is the object of much ridicule in the 17th century. Repeating the phrasing which had become traditional in the schools—“the actualization of what exists in potentiality, in so far as it is potential”—Descartes asks: “Now who understands these words? And who at the same time does not know what motion is? Will not everyone admit that those philosophers have been trying to find a knot in a bulrush?” Locke also finds it meaningless. “What more exquisite jargon could the wit of man invent than this definition… which would puzzle any rational man to whom it was not already known by its famous absurdity, to guess what word it could ever be supposed to be the explication of. If Tully, asking a Dutchman what beweging was,” Locke continues, “should have received this explication in his own language, that it was actus entis in potentia quatenus in potentia; I ask whether any one can imagine he could thereby have guessed what the word beweging signified?”

Locke does not seem to be satisfied with any definition of motion. “The atomists, who define motion to be ‘a passage from one place to another,’ what do they more than put one synonymous word for another? For what is passage other than motion? … Nor will ‘the successive application of the superficies of one body to those of another,’ which the Cartesians give us, prove a much better definition of motion, when well examined.” But though Locke rejects the definition of the atomists and the Cartesians on formal grounds, he accepts their idea of motion as simply change of place; whereas he dismisses the Aristotelian definition as sheer absurdity and rejects the idea that motion or change necessarily involves a potentiality capable of progressive fulfillment.

As we have already remarked, the omission of potentiality from the conception of motion is a theoretical shift of the deepest significance. It occurs not only in Descartes’ Principles of Philosophy and in the atomism of Hobbes and Gassendi, but also in the mechanics of Galileo and Newton. According to these modern philosophers and scientists, a moving body is always actually somewhere. It occupies a different place at every moment in a continuous motion. The motion can be described as the successive occupation by the body of different places at different times. Though all the parts of the motion do not coexist, the moving particle is completely actual throughout. It loses no reality and gains none in the course of the motion, since the various positions the body occupies lie totally outside its material nature. It would, of course, be more difficult to analyze alteration in color or biological growth in these terms, but it must be remembered that efforts have been made to apply such an analysis through the reduction of all other modes of change to local motion.

The principle of inertia, first discerned by Galileo, is critically relevant to the issue between these two conceptions of motion. It is stated by Newton as the first of his “axioms or laws of motion.” “Every body,” he writes, “continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.” As applied to the motion of projectiles, the law declares that they “continue in their motions, so far as they are not retarded by the resistance of air, or impelled downwards by the force of gravity.”

In his experimental reasoning concerning the acceleration of bodies moving down inclined planes, Galileo argues that a body which has achieved a certain velocity on the descent would, if it then proceeded along a horizontal plane, continue infinitely at the same velocity—except for the retardation of air resistance and friction. “Any velocity once imparted to a moving body,” he maintains, “will be rigidly maintained as long as the external causes of acceleration or retardation are removed.” So in the case of projectiles, they would retain the velocity and direction imparted to them by the cannon, were it not for the factors of gravity and air resistance. Bodies actually in motion possess their motion in themselves as a complete actuality. They need no causes acting on them to keep them in motion, but only to change their direction or bring them to rest.

The motion of projectiles presents a difficulty for the theory which describes all motion as a reduction of potency to act. “If everything that is in motion, with the exception of things that move themselves, is moved by something else, how is it,” Aristotle asks, “that some things, e.g., things thrown, continue to be in motion when their movent is no longer in contact with them?” This is a problem for Aristotle precisely because he supposes that the moving cause must act on the thing being moved throughout the period of the motion. For the potentiality to be progressively reduced to actuality, it must be continuously acted upon.

Aristotle’s answer postulates a series of causes so that contact can be maintained between the projectile and the moving cause. “The original movent,” he writes, “gives the power of being a movent either to air or to water or to something else of the kind, naturally adapted for imparting and undergoing motion…. The motion begins to cease when the motive force produced in one member of the consecutive series is at each stage less than that possessed by the preceding member, and it finally ceases when one member no longer causes the next member to be a movent but only causes it to be in motion.” It follows that inertia must be denied by those who hold that a moving body always requires a mover; or even that a body cannot sustain itself in motion beyond a point proportionate to the quantity of the impressed force which originally set it in motion.

FOR THE ANCIENTS, the basic contrast between being and becoming (or between the permanent and the changing) is a contrast between the intelligible and the sensible. This is most sharply expressed in Plato’s distinction between the sensible realm of material things and the intelligible realm of ideas. “What is that which always is and has no becoming,” Timaeus asks; “and what is that which is always becoming and never is?” He answers his own question by saying that “that which is apprehended by intelligence and reason is always in the same state; but that which is conceived by opinion with the help of sensations and without reason, is always in a process of becoming and perishing, and never really is.”

Even though Aristotle differs from Plato in thinking that change and the changing can be objects of scientific knowledge, he, too, holds becoming to be less intelligible than being, precisely because change necessarily involves potentiality. Yet becoming can be understood to the extent that we can discover the principles of its being—the unchanging principles of change. “In pursuing the truth,” Aristotle remarks—and this applies to the truth about change as well as everything else—“one must start from the things that are always in the same state and suffer no change.”

For Aristotle, change is intelligible through the three elements of permanence which are its principles: (1) the enduring substratum of change, and the contraries—(2) that to which, and (3) that from which, the change takes place. The same principles are sometimes stated to be (1) matter, (2) form, and (3) privation; the matter or substratum being that which both lacks a certain form and has a definite potentiality for possessing it. Change occurs when the matter undergoes a transformation in which it comes to have the form of which it was deprived by the possession of a contrary form.

Neither of the contrary forms changes. Only the thing composite of matter and form changes with respect to the forms of its matter. Hence these principles of change are themselves unchanging. Change takes place through, not in, them. As constituents of the changing thing, they are the principles of its mutable being, principles of its becoming as well as of its being mutable.

The explanation of change by reference to what does not change seems to be common to all theories of becoming. Lucretius, as we have already seen, explains the coming to be and passing away of all other things by the motions of atoms which neither come to be nor pass away. The eternity of the atoms underlies the mutability of everything else.

Yet the atoms are not completely immutable. They move forever through the void which, according to Lucretius, is required for their motion. Their local motion is, moreover, an actual property of the atoms. For them, to be is to be in motion. Here then, as in the Cartesian theory, no potentiality is involved, and motion is completely real and completely intelligible.

THE NOTIONS OF time and eternity are inseparable from the theory of change or motion. As the chapters on TIME and SPACE indicate, local motion involves the dimensions of space as well as time, but all change requires time, and time itself is inconceivable apart from change or motion. Furthermore, as appears in the chapters on TIME and ETERNITY, the two fundamentally opposed meanings of eternity differ according to whether they imply endless change or absolute changelessness.

Eternity is sometimes identified with infinite time. It is in this sense that Plato, in the Timaeus, refers to time as “the moving image of eternity” and implies that time, which belongs to the realm of ever-changing things, resembles the eternal only through its perpetual endurance. The other sense of the eternal is also implied—the sense in which eternity belongs to the realm of immutable being. The eternal in this sense, as Montaigne points out, is not merely that “which never had beginning nor never shall have ending,” but rather that “to which time can bring no mutation.”

There are two great problems which use the word “eternity” in these opposite senses. One is the problem of the eternity of motion: the question whether motion has or can have either a beginning or an end. The other is the problem of the existence of eternal objects—immutable things which have their being apart from time and change.

The two problems are connected in ancient thought. Aristotle, for example, argues that “it is impossible that movement should either have come into being or cease to be, for it must always have existed.” Since “nothing is moved at random, but there must always be something present to move it,” a cause is required to sustain the endless motions of nature. This cause, which Aristotle calls “the prime mover,” must be “something which moves without being moved, being eternal, substance, and actuality.”

Aristotle’s theory of a prime mover sets up a hierarchy of causes to account for the different kinds of motion observable in the universe. The perfect circular motion of the heavens serves to mediate between the prime mover which is totally unmoved and the less regular cycles of terrestrial change. The “constant cycle” of movement in the stars differs from the irregular cycle of “generation and destruction” on earth. For the first, Aristotle asserts the necessity of “something which is always moved with an unceasing motion, which is motion in a circle.” He calls this motion of the first heavenly sphere “the simple spatial movement of the universe” as a whole. Besides this “there are other spatial movements—those of the planets—which are eternal” but are “always acting in different ways” and so are able to account for the other cycle in nature—the irregular cycle of generation and corruption.

In addition, a kind of changelessness is attributed to all the celestial bodies which Aristotle calls “eternal.” Eternally in motion, they are also eternally in being. Though not immovable, they are supposed to be incorruptible substances. They never begin to be and never perish.

The theory of a world eternally in motion is challenged by Jewish and Christian theologians who affirm, as an article of their religious faith, that “in the beginning God created heaven and earth.” The world’s motions, like its existence, have a beginning in the act of creation. Creation itself, Aquinas insists, is not change or motion of any sort, “except according to our way of understanding. For change means that the same thing should be different now from what it was previously…. But in creation, by which the whole substance of a thing is produced, the same thing can be taken as different now and before, only according to our way of understanding, so that a thing is understood as first not existing at all, and afterwards as existing.” Since creation is an absolute coming to be from non-being, no pre-existent matter is acted upon as in generation, in artistic production, or in any of the forms of motion.

THE PHILOSOPHICAL and theological issues concerning creation and change, eternity and time, are further discussed in the chapters on CAUSE, ETERNITY, and WORLD. Other problems arising from the analysis of change must at least be briefly mentioned here.

Though less radical than the difference between creation and change, the difference between the motions of inert or non-living things and the vital activities of plants and animals raises for any theory of change the question whether the same principles apply to both. The rolling stone and the running animal both move locally, but are both motions locomotion in the same sense? Augmentation occurs both in the growth of a crystal and the growth of a plant, but are both of them growing in the same sense? In addition, there seems to be one kind of change in living things which has no parallel in the movements of inert bodies. Animals and men learn. They acquire knowledge, form habits and change them. Can change of mind be explained in the same terms as change in matter?

The issues raised by questions of this sort are more fully discussed in the chapters on ANIMAL, HABIT, and LIFE. Certain other issues must be entirely reserved for discussion elsewhere. The special problems of local motion—such as the properties of rectilinear and circular motion, the distinction between uniform and variable motion, and the uniform or variable acceleration of the latter—are problems which belong to the chapters on ASTRONOMY and MECHANICS. Change, furthermore, is a basic fact not only for the natural scientist, but for the historian—the natural historian or the historian of man and society. The considerations relevant to this aspect of change receive treatment in the chapters on EVOLUTION, HISTORY, and PROGRESS.

Even these ramifications of discussion do not exhaust the significance of change. The cyclical course of the emotions and the alternation of pleasure and pain have been thought inexplicable without reference to change of state in regard to desire and aversion—the motion from want to satisfaction, or from possession to deprivation. Change is not only a factor in the analysis of emotion, but it is also itself an object of man’s emotional attitudes. It is both loved and hated, sought and avoided.

According to Pascal, man tries desperately to avoid a state of rest. He does everything he can to keep things in flux. “Our nature consists in motion,” he writes; “complete rest is death…. Nothing is so insufferable to man,” he continues, “as to be completely at rest, without passions, without business, without diversion, without study. He then feels his nothingness, his forlornness, his dependence, his weakness, his emptiness.” Darwin does not think that the desire for change is peculiar to man. “The lower animals,” he writes, “are… likewise capricious in their affections, aversions, and sense of beauty. There is also reason to suspect that they love novelty for its own sake.”

But men also wish to avoid change. The old Prince Bolkonski, in War and Peace, “could not comprehend how anyone could wish to alter his life or introduce anything new into it.” This is not merely an old man’s view. For the most part, it is permanence rather than transiency, the enduring rather than the novel, which the poets celebrate when they express man’s discontent with his own mutability. The withering and perishing of all mortal things, the assault of time and change upon all things familiar and loved, have moved them to elegy over the evanescent and the ephemeral. From Virgil’s Sunt lacrimae rerum et mentem mortalia tangunt to Shakespeare’s “Love is not love / Which alters when it alteration finds,” the poets have mourned the inevitability of change.

OUTLINE OF TOPICS

1. The nature and reality of change or motion
2. The unchanging principles of change
   • 2a. The constituents of the changing thing
   • 2b. The factor of opposites or contraries in change
3. Cause and effect in motion: the relation of mover and moved, or action and passion
4. Motion and rest: contrary motions
5. The measure of motion
   • 5a. Time or duration as the measure of motion
   • 5b. The divisibility and continuity of motion
6. The kinds of change
   • 6a. The reducibility of all modes of motion to one kind of change
   • 6b. The primacy of local motion
   • 6c. Comparison of change in living and non-living things
   • 6d. Comparison of the motions of matter with changes in the order of mind
7. The analysis of local motion
   • 7a. Space, place, and void
   • 7b. Natural and violent motion
   • 7c. Kinds of local motion
     • (1) Rectilinear and rotary or circular motion
     • (2) Uniform or variable motion
     • (3) Absolute or relative motion
     • (4) Terrestrial and celestial motion
   • 7d. The properties of variable motion: the laws of motion
8. Change of size
   • 8a. The increase and decrease of inanimate bodies
   • 8b. Growth in living organisms
9. Change of quality
   • 9a. Physical and chemical change: compounds and mixtures
   • 9b. Biological change: vital alterations
10. Substantial change: generation and corruption
    • 10a. Substantial change in the realm of bodies: the transmutation of the elements
    • 10b. Plant, animal, and human reproduction
    • 10c. The incorruptibility of atoms, the heavenly bodies, and spiritual substances
11. The apprehension of change: by sense, by reason
12. Emotional aspects of change
    • 12a. Rest and motion in relation to pleasure and pain
    • 12b. The love and hatred of change
13. The problem of the eternity of motion or change
14. The theory of the prime mover: the order and hierarchy of movers and moved
15. The immutable
    • 15a. The immutability of the objects of thought: the realm of truth
    • 15b. The unalterability of the decrees of fate
    • 15c. The immutability of God

REFERENCES

To find the passages cited, use the numbers in heavy type, which are the volume and page numbers of the passages referred to. For example, in 4 Homer: Iliad, BK II [265–283] 12d, the number 4 is the number of the volume in the set; the number 12d indicates that the passage is in section d of page 12.

Page Sections: When the text is printed in one column, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the page. For example, in 53 James: Psychology, 116a–119b, the passage begins in the upper half of page 116 and ends in the lower half of page 119. When the text is printed in two columns, the letters a and b refer to the upper and lower halves of the left-hand side of the page, the letters c and d to the upper and lower halves of the right-hand side of the page. For example, in 7 Plato: Symposium, 163b–164c, the passage begins in the lower half of the left-hand side of page 163 and ends in the upper half of the right-hand side of page 164.

Author’s Divisions: One or more of the main divisions of a work (such as PART, BK, CH, SECT) are sometimes included in the reference; line numbers, in brackets, are given in certain cases; e.g., 4 Homer: Iliad, BK II [265–283] 12d.

Bible References: The references are to book, chapter, and verse. When the King James and Douay versions differ in title of books or in the numbering of chapters or verses, the King James version is cited first and the Douay, indicated by a (D), follows; e.g., Old Testament: Nehemiah, 7:45—(D) II Esdras, 7:46.

Symbols: The abbreviation “esp” calls the reader’s attention to one or more especially relevant parts of a whole reference; “passim” signifies that the topic is discussed intermittently rather than continuously in the work or passage cited.

For additional information concerning the style of the references, see the Explanation of Reference Style; for general guidance in the use of The Great Ideas, consult the Preface.

1. The nature and reality of change or motion

• 7 Plato: Cratylus, 86b-89b; 94c-d; 99b-104b; 112a-114a,c / Phaedrus, 124c-126c / Symposium, 165c-166b / Phaedo, 231c-232b / Republic, BK II, 322d-323a; BK V, 370a-373c / Timaeus, 447b-d; 455c-458b passim; 460c-d / Parmenides, 504c-505c / Theaetetus, 517d-534b esp 517d-518b, 532a-534b / Sophist, 564d-574c / Statesman, 587a-b / Philebus, 632a-d / Laws, BK X, 760a-765d esp 762b-765d
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK I, CH 2 [184b15–185a14] 259b-d; CH 4-9 262a-268d; BK III, CH 1-3 278a-280c; BK IV, CH 11 [219a9–31] 299b-d; BK VI, CH 6 319c-321a / Heavens, BK IV, CH 3 [310a22–311a12] 402b-c; CH 4 [311b29–33] 403c / Generation and Corruption, BK I, CH 10 [336a25–34] 438d / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 3-10 501c-511d passim; BK IV, CH 2 [1004b27–29] 523d; CH 5 [1010a6–38] 529c-530a; CH 8 [1012a22–33] 532d; BK IX, CH 3 [1047a10–29] 572b-c; CH 6 573c-574c; CH 8 [1049b29–1050a3] 575c-d; CH 10 [1051b28–30] 578a; BK XI, CH 6 590d-592b; CH 9 593d-594d; CH 11-12 596a-598a,c esp CH 11 [1067b15–1068a7] 596b-d, CH 12 [1068b20–25] 597c-d; BK XII, CH 5 [1070b36–1071a4] 600b-c / Soul, BK I, CH 3 [406a11–14] 636a; BK III, CH 7 [431a1–8] 663c
• 9 Aristotle: Generation of Animals, BK V, CH 1 [778a2–7] 320c-d / Ethics, BK X, CH 4 [1174a13–14] 428b-429a
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 2 167b-168c
• 11 Nicomachus: Arithmetic, BK I, 811b-d
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK I [146–448] 2d-6c; BK II [62–332] 15d-19b; [1105–1174] 29a-30a,c; BK V [235–415] 64a-66c
• 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK IV, SECT 35-36 266d; SECT 42-43 267b; SECT 46 267c; BK V, SECT 23 272b; BK VI, SECT 15 275a-b; BK VII, SECT 18 281a; SECT 50 283a; BK VIII, SECT 6 285d-286a; BK IX, SECT 19 293b; SECT 28 293d-294a
• 16 Kepler: Harmonies of the World, 1051b
• 17 Plotinus: Second Ennead, TR I, CH 3-4 36b-37b; TR V 57d-60c / Sixth Ennead, TR I, CH 15-22 260c-264c; TR III, CH 21-28 293a-297b
• 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK IV, par 15-17 23a-c; BK VII, par 17-18 49a-b; BK XI, par 6 90c-d
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 2, A 3, ANS 12c-14a; Q 9, A 1, ANS and REP 1 38c-39c; Q 10, A 4, REP 3 43b-44b; A 5, ANS 44b-45c; Q 18, A 1, ANS 104c-105c; A 3, REP 1 106b-107c; Q 23, A 1, REP 3 132c-133b; Q 53, A 1, REP 2-3 280d-282a; A 3, ANS 283b-284d; Q 65, A 4 342b-343c; Q 67, A 3, REP 1 351b-352a; A 4, ANS 352a-354a; Q 73, A 1, REP 2 370a-371a; A 2, ANS 371b-d; Q 79, A 9, ANS 422b-423d; Q 103, A 5, REP 2 531b-532b; PART I-II, Q 10, A 1, REP 2 662d-663d; Q 23, AA 3-4 725c-727a; Q 25, A 1, ANS and REP 2 730b-731b; Q 31, A 3, REP 2 754a-d; A 8 758b-759a
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART III, Q 15, A 10, REP 1 795b-796a; Q 62, A 4 861a-862a; PART III SUPPL, Q 91, A 3, REP 2 1020d-1022c
• 22 Chaucer: Knight’s Tale [2987–3040] 209a-210a
• 25 Montaigne: Essays, 292d-294b
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY–FOURTH DAY 197a-260a,c esp THIRD DAY, 224d
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK I, APH 66 114d-115c; BK II, APH 48 179d-188b
• 31 Descartes: Rules, XII, 24a
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART II, LEMMA 3 378d-379a
• 33 Pascal: Geometrical Demonstration, 433b-434a
• 34 Newton: Principles, DEFINITIONS–BK II 5a-267a esp DEFINITIONS, SCHOL 8b-13a, LAW 1 14a
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH IV, SECT 8-9 260d-261b
• 35 Berkeley: Human Knowledge, SECT 102 432d-433a, SECT 110-115 434b-435c
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 27a; 28b-c; 29c-d; 31d-32a; 55c-56a; 72c-85d esp 74b-76c, 82a-83b; 91d-93c; 95a-d
• 46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 178a-179d; 186d-190b
• 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK XIV, 608a-b
• 53 James: Psychology, 882a-884b

2. The unchanging principles of change

• 7 Plato: Phaedrus, 124b-c / Timaeus, 455c-458a / Sophist, 564d-574c / Philebus, 610d-619d / Laws, BK X, 760a-765d
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK I 259a-268d / Heavens, BK I, CH 3 [270a12–17] 361b / Metaphysics, BK III, CH 4 [999b24–1000a4] 518a-c, BK XII, CH 10 [1075a25–34] 606a
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 2 167b-168c
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK I [146–920] 2d-12b
• 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK IV, SECT 4 264a; BK VI, SECT 15 275a-b; BK IX, SECT 28 293d-294a; BK X, SECT 7 297b-c
• 16 Kepler: Epitome, BK IV, 854b
• 17 Plotinus: Second Ennead, TR I, CH 1-4 35a-37b; TR IV–V 50a-60c / Third Ennead, TR VI, CH 7-19 110d-119a
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 19, A 1, ANS 108d-109c; Q 84, A 1, REP 3 440d-442a; Q 86, A 3 463b-d; Q 113, A 1, ANS 576a-d; Q 115, A 3, ANS and REP 2 588c-589c
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 23a-33d esp 27a, 29c-d; 49c-51d esp 51c-d; 72c-76c; 82a-83b; 91d-93c; 120c-129c esp 121a-124d, 126a-128b; 141b,d-145c; 200c-204c

2a. The constituents of the changing thing

• 7 Plato: Timaeus, 458a-460d / Philebus, 610d-619d
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK I, CH 1 259a-b; CH 6-9 264c-268d; BK III, CH 1-3 278a-280c; BK IV, CH 9 [217a20–b27] 297a-c; BK V, CH 1 [225a12–29] 305b-c; BK VI, CH 10 [240b8–241a26] 324c-325b / Heavens, BK I, CH 3 [270a12–17] 361b; BK IV, CH 4 [312a3–22] 403c-d / Generation and Corruption, BK I, CH 1 [314a6–315a3] 410a-b; CH 3 413c-416c esp [318a1–319b4] 414b-416c; CH 4 [320a2–6] 417a; BK II, CH 1 [329a24–b2] 429a-b / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 6 [987b30–988a8] 506a; CH 8 [988b22–989b24] 506d-508a; BK III, CH 4 [999b24–1000a4] 518a-c; BK IV, CH 5 [1009a22–38] 528d; BK V, CH 1 [1013a3–7] 533a; CH 2 [1013a24–27] 533b; CH 4 534d-535c; BK VII, CH 8-10 556b-559d; CH 15 [1039b20–1040a8] 563c-564a; BK VIII-IX 566a-578a,c; BK XI, CH 9 [1065b25–31] 594b; CH 12 [1068a10–14] 597c; BK XII, CH 1-5 598a-601a; CH 10 [1075a25–34] 606a
• 9 Aristotle: Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 18 [724a20–b3] 264b-d; CH 20 [729a6]–CH 22 [730b33] 269b-271a
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 2-3 167b-169a
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK I [146–634] 2d-8d; BK II [62–1022] 15d-28a
• 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK XII, SECT 30 310a-b
• 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR VIII, CH 8 30d-31c / Second Ennead, TR I, CH 1-4 35a-37b; TR IV, CH 6-8 51d-53a; TR V, CH 1–TR VI, CH 2 57d-62b / Third Ennead, TR VI, CH 8-19 111c-119a / Sixth Ennead, TR III, CH 22 293d-294c; TR V, CH 8 307d-308c
• 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK XII, par 3-16 99d-103a
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 9, A 1, ANS 38c-39c; Q 19, A 1, ANS 108d-109c; Q 29, A 1, REP 4 162a-163b; Q 45, A 2, REP 2 242d-244a; Q 48, A 3, ANS 261b-262a; Q 58, A 7, REP 3 305c-306b; Q 62, A 7, REP 1 322d-323b; Q 66, A 2, ANS 345d-347b; Q 75, A 5, REP 2 382a-383b; Q 92, A 2, REP 2 489d-490c; A 3, REP 1 490c-491b; A 4, ANS and REP 1 491b-d; Q 104, A 1, ANS and REP 1-2 534c-536c; PART I-II, Q 1, A 3, ANS 611b-612a; Q 10, A 1, REP 2 662d-663d
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 24, A 11, ANS 498b-499c
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 172b
• 28 Harvey: On Animal Generation, 494a-496d esp 494b, 495c-496a
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 6 139b-c
• 34 Newton: Optics, BK III, 541b
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 74b-76c

2b. The factor of opposites or contraries in change

• 7 Plato: Symposium, 165c-166b / Phaedo, 226d-228a; 243c-246c / Republic, BK IV, 350d-351b / Theaetetus, 519d-520b / Sophist, 565a-c / Laws, BK X, 760a-c; 762b-764c
• 8 Aristotle: Categories, CH 5 [4a10–19] 8b-9a; CH 10 [13a17–37] 18d-19a; CH 14 [15b1–16] 21b-c / Physics, BK I, CH 5-9 263c-268d; BK II, CH 1 [193b19–22] 270a; BK III, CH 1 [201a4–8] 278c; BK IV, CH 9 [217a20–b26] 297a-c; BK V, CH 1 [224b27–225a12] 304d-305a; [225a34–b9] 305d; CH 2 [226a23–9] 306d-307a; CH 3 [226b24–34] 307c; CH 5 310a-311a; CH 6 [230a27–231a2] 312b-c; BK VI, CH 4 [234b10–21] 316d-317a; BK VIII, CH 2 [252a9–11] 336b-c; CH 7 [260a29–b1] 346b-c / Heavens, BK I, CH 3 [270a13–23] 361b-c; CH 4 362a-c; CH 8 [277a13–34] 368b-c, CH 12 [283b17–23] 375c-d; BK IV, CH 3 401c-402c; CH 4 [311b29–312a2] 403c-d / Generation and Corruption, BK I, CH 4 416c-417a; CH 7 421d-423b, BK II, CH 1-5 428b,d-433d esp CH 4-5 431b-433d / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 8 [989a18–29] 507b-c; BK III, CH 2 [994a19–b6] 512c-d; BK IV, CH 7 [1011b29–38] 531d; BK VIII, CH 5 569b-d; BK IX, CH 9 [1051a4–13] 577a; BK X, CH 7 [1057a18–34] 584c-d; BK XI, CH 9 [1065b5–14] 593d-594a; CH 11 596a-d; BK XII, CH 2 598c-599a; CH 10 [1075a25–34] 606a / Soul, BK II, CH 4 [416a18–b8] 646c-d / Longevity, CH 3 710d-711b
• 9 Aristotle: Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 18 [724a20–b3] 264b-d; BK IV, CH 3 [768a2–7] 309c / Ethics, BK IX, CH 8 [1159a19–23] 411d
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 2, 167b-d
• 17 Plotinus: Third Ennead, TR VI, CH 8 111c-d / Sixth Ennead, TR III, CH 22 293d-294c; CH 27 296b-297a
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 19, A 1, ANS 108d-109c; Q 23, A 1, REP 3 132c-133b; Q 26, A 1, REP 2 150b-c; Q 58, A 7, REP 3 305c-306b; Q 62, A 7, REP 1 322d-323b; PART I-II, Q 18, A 8, REP 1 699d-700b; Q 23, A 2 724c-725c
• 28 Harvey: On Animal Generation, 408c-d
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART III, PROP 4-6 398d-399a; PART IV, PROP 29-35 431d-434a; PART V, AXIOM 1 452c
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 27a; 76c-83b esp 76c-d; 91d-93c
• 46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 160c-d; 165a-b; 178a-d; 179b-d

3. Cause and effect in motion: the relation of mover and moved, or action and passion

• 7 Plato: Phaedrus, 124b-c / Gorgias, 267c-268a / Timaeus, 460c-d / Laws, BK X, 760a-765d esp 761b-765d
• 8 Aristotle: Categories, CH 9 [11b1–7] 16c-d / Physics, BK III, CH 1 [200b29–32] 278b; CH 2 [202a2]–CH 3 [202b29] 279c-280c; BK VII, CH 1-2 326a-329a; BK VIII, CH 10 [266b27–267b21] 354b-d / Heavens, BK I, CH 3 [270a12–17] 361b; CH 7 [275b1–29] 366a-367a; CH 8 [277b1–8] 368c-d, BK III, CH 2 [300b8–301a12] 391d-392c; [301b2–32] 392d-393b; BK IV, CH 3 401c-402c / Generation and Corruption, BK I, CH 6 [323a12–34] 421b-c; CH 7-9 421d-426c; BK II, CH 9-10 436d-439c / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 6 [987b30–988a8] 506a; CH 7 [988a31–b16] 506c-d; BK V, CH 2 [1013a3–16] 533c-d; BK IX, CH 1-5 570b,d-573c; CH 7 [1048b35–1049a18] 574c-d; BK XI, CH 9 [1066a27–34] 594d; BK XII, CH 3 [1069b35–1070a9] 599a-b; [1070a21–30] 599c-d; CH 4 [1070b22]–CH 8 [1074b14] 600b-605a; CH 10 [1075b1–37] 606b-d / Soul, BK II, CH 5 647b-648d; BK III, CH 2 [426a2–6] 658a-b
• 9 Aristotle: Motion of Animals, CH 8 [702a5–22] 237b-c / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 20 [729a9]–CH 21 [729b21] 269b-270a; BK II, CH 4 [740b18–26] 281c-d; BK IV, CH 3 [768b16–24] 310b-c
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 2, 168b-c; BK III, CH 7, 203b-c
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK II [80–141] 16a-d; [184–293] 17b-18d
• 16 Kepler: Epitome, BK IV, 854b; 855b; 940b-941a; 959a-960a
• 17 Plotinus: Sixth Ennead, TR I, CH 15-22 260c-264c; TR III, CH 23 294d-295a
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 8, A 1, ANS and REP 2 34d-35c; Q 41, A 1, REP 2 217d-218c; Q 44, A 2, REP 2 239b-240a; Q 48, A 1, REP 4 259b-260c; Q 60, A 1, REP 2 310b-311a; Q 75, A 1, REP 3 378b-379c; Q 80, A 2, ANS 428a-d; Q 115, A 1 585d-587c; PART I-II, Q 1, A 3, ANS and REP 1 611b-612a; A 6, ANS 614a-c; Q 9, A 4, ANS 660a-d, Q 22 720b,d-723b; Q 23, A 4 726a-727a
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 113, A 8 367d-368c
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK II, 26d-40b passim; BK VI, 109a-b, 112d
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY, 202a-203a
• 28 Harvey: On Animal Generation, 423d
• 31 Descartes: Meditations, III, 87c-88a / Objections and Replies, AXIOM II 131d; 212a
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART II, AXIOM 1-5 373c-d; LEMMA 3 378d-379a; PART III, DEF 1-3 395d-396a; PROP 1-4 396a-398d; PART IV, AXIOM–PROP 7 424c-426b; PART V, AXIOM 2 452c; PROP 3-4 453a-d
• 34 Newton: Principles, DEF III-IV 5b-6a; LAW I-II 14a-b
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 1-5 178b-179d; SECT 74, 199d-200b; CH XXII, SECT 11 203c-d; CH XXIII, SECT 28-29 211b-212a
• 35 Hume: Human Understanding, SECT III, DIV 18–SECT VIII, DIV 74 457c-484c passim, esp SECT VII, DIV 60 477a-c
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 15a-b; 43a-b; 76c-83b; 91d-93c

4. Motion and rest: contrary motions

• 7 Plato: Cratylus, 112b / Republic, BK IV, 350d-351b / Timaeus, 453b-c; 460c-d / Sophist, 567a-574c / Statesman, 587a-589c esp 587a-b
• 8 Aristotle: Categories, CH 14 [15b1–16] 21b-c / Physics, BK V, CH 5–6 310a-312d / Heavens, BK I, CH 4 362a-c / Metaphysics, BK IV, CH 2 [1004b27–29] 523d; BK XI, CH 12 [1068b20–25] 597c-d / Soul, BK I, CH 3 [406a22–27] 635c
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 2, 167b-d
• 11 Nicomachus: Arithmetic, BK II, 832c
• 16 Copernicus: Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, BK I, 517b-518a, 519b-520b
• 16 Kepler: Epitome, BK IV, 931b
• 17 Plotinus: Sixth Ennead, TR III, CH 24 295b-c; CH 27 296b-297a
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 10, A 4, REP 3 43b-44b, Q 18, A 1, REP 2 104c-105c; Q 53, A 3, ANS 283b-284d; Q 73, A 2, ANS 371b-d; PART I-II, Q 6, A 1 644d-646a; A 4 647b-648a, Q 9, A 4, REP 2 660a-d, Q 41, A 3 799c-800b
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 75, A 3, ANS and REP 3-5 938a-939d, Q 84, A 3, REP 2 985d-989b
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 50a
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK I, 26a-b; BK VI, 110b
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 35, 163a
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART II, AXIOM 1 378c; LEMMA 1-3 378c-379a
• 34 Newton: Principles, DEF III 5b; LAW I 14a

5. The measure of motion

5a. Time or duration as the measure of motion

• 7 Plato: Timaeus, 450c-451d / Parmenides, 504c-505c
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK IV, CH 10-14 297c-304a,c; BK VI 312b,d-325d esp CH 2 314a-315d / Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 10 [337a22–34] 439b-c / Metaphysics, BK V, CH 13 [1020a25–33] 541c; BK X, CH 1 [1053a9–12] 579c; BK XII, CH 6 [1071b6–12] 601b
• 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK X, CH 4 [1174a12–14] 428b-429a
• 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK VI, SECT 15 275a-b
• 17 Plotinus: Third Ennead, TR VII, CH 7-13 122d-129a / Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 15 165c-d / Sixth Ennead, TR I, CH 5, 254c-d; CH 16 260d-261c; TR III, CH 22, 294c
• 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK XI, par 12-40 92b-99a; BK XII, par 9 101b-c / City of God, BK XI, CH 6 325c-d; BK XIII, CH 15 351b-352d
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 7, A 3, REP 4 32c-33c; Q 10, A 1, ANS 40d-41d; AA 4-6 43b-46d; Q 53, A 3 283b-284d; Q 57, A 3, REP 2 297b-298a; Q 63, A 5, ANS 329a-330c; A 6, REP 4 330c-331c; Q 66, A 4, REP 4 348d-349d; PART I-II, Q 31, A 2, ANS and REP 1 753c-754a
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 113, A 7, REP 5 366a-367c; PART III SUPPL, Q 84, A 3 985d-989b
• 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, XXVII [106–120] 148b-c
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY, 201a-202a
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 46 177c-179a
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART II, DEF 5 373b-c
• 32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK V [580–582] 188a
• 33 Pascal: Geometrical Demonstration, 432b-433b; 434a-439b passim
• 34 Newton: Principles, DEFINITIONS, SCHOL, 8b-10a; 12a-b
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XIV, SECT 22 159d, CH XVIII, SECT 2 174a-b
• 36 Sterne: Tristram Shandy, 292a-293a
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 27a; 29c-d; 72c-76c
• 45 Fourier: Theory of Heat, 249a-251b

5b. The divisibility and continuity of motion

• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK IV, CH 11 [219a10–13] 298d-299a; BK V, CH 4 308b-310a; BK VI 312b,d-325d; BK VII, CH 1 [242a32–b4] 326c-d; BK VIII, CH 7 [261a28]–CH 8 [265a12] 347c-352a / Metaphysics, BK V, CH 6 [1016b4–7] 536b-c; CH 13 [1020a25–33] 541c; BK X, CH 1 [1052a15–21] 578b; BK XII, CH 6 [1071b8–11] 601b
• 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK X, CH 4 [1174a9–14] 428d-429a
• 17 Plotinus: Third Ennead, TR VII, CH 8-9 123b-125d
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 7, A 3, REP 4 32c-33c; Q 53 280d-284d
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 113, A 7 366a-367c
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY, 201a-202a
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 6 139b-c; APH 41 173d-174b
• 31 Descartes: Meditations, III, 87c-d / Objections and Replies, 213b-c
• 33 Pascal: Geometrical Demonstration, 434a-439b
• 34 Newton: Principles, BK I, LEMMA II, SCHOL, 31b-32a
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 26b-27a; 74b-76c
• 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK XI, 469a-d

6. The kinds of change

• 7 Plato: Timaeus, 449b-450c esp 450a / Parmenides, 492a-493b esp 492d-493b; 504c-505a / Theaetetus, 533a-b / Laws, BK X, 762b-763b
• 8 Aristotle: Categories, CH 14 20d-21c / Physics, BK III, CH 1 [200b32–201a14] 278b-c; BK V, CH 1-2 304a-307b; CH 5 310a-311a; BK VII, CH 4 330d-333a / Heavens, BK I, CH 2 [268b15–269a8] 359d-360a; BK IV, CH 3 401c-402c / Generation and Corruption, BK I, CH 1-5 409a-420b esp CH 4 [319b32–320a2] 417a / Metaphysics, BK III, CH 2 [994a19–b6] 512c-d; BK VII, CH 9 [1034b8–19] 557d-558a; BK XI, CH 9 [1065b7–14] 593d-594a; CH 11 [1067b1]–CH 12 [1068a25] 596a-597d; BK XII, CH 2 [1069b8–14] 598d / Soul, BK I, CH 3 [406a12–21] 635c
• 9 Aristotle: Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 18 [724a20–b3] 264b-d
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 2, 167b-d; CH 5 169b-c
• 17 Plotinus: Sixth Ennead, TR III, CH 21-27 293a-297a
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 44, A 2, ANS 239b-240a; Q 45, A 1, REP 2 242a-d; Q 66, A 1, ANS 343d-345c; Q 118, A 2, REP 2 601c-603b; PART I-II, Q 1, A 3, ANS 611b-612a; Q 23, A 2, ANS 724c-725c
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 107, A 1, ANS 325c-327b; PART III SUPPL, Q 84, A 2, REP 1,4 984c-985d; A 3, ANS 985d-989b
• 28 Harvey: On Animal Generation, 407c-409b
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK I, APH 66 114d-115c
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXII, SECT 11 203c-d

6a. The reducibility of all modes of motion to one kind of change

• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK VIII, CH 7 [260a26–b14] 346b-c / Generation and Corruption, BK I, CH 1-5 409a-420b
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 2, 167b-168b
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK I [418–448] 6b-c; BK II [730–1022] 24b-28a; BK III [417–869] 35c-41a; BK IV [522–817] 51a-54d
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 61a-c; PART III, 173a; PART IV, 271a-b
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK I, APH 50 111b
• 34 Newton: Principles, 1b-2a / Optics, BK III, 541b
• 34 Huygens: Light, CH 1, 553b-554a
• 45 Fourier: Theory of Heat, 169a-b; 182a-b
• 53 James: Psychology, 882a-884b

6b. The primacy of local motion

• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK IV, CH 1 [208a28–33] 287a; BK VIII, CH 1 [250b15–18] 334a; CH 7 346b-348a / Heavens, BK I, CH 2 [268b15–17] 359d; BK IV, CH 3 [310a22–34] 402b / Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 10 437d-439c / Metaphysics, BK XII, CH 6 [1071b2–11] 601b; [1071b32–38] 601d; CH 7 [1072a4–10] 602c; CH 8 [1073a24–39] 603c
• 9 Aristotle: Motion of Animals, CH 5 235c-d
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 67, A 2, REP 3 350b-351a; Q 78, A 3, ANS 410a-411d; Q 110, A 3, ANS 566d-567b
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 84, A 2, REP 1,4 984c-985d

6c. Comparison of change in living and non-living things

• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK VII, CH 2 [244b1–245a12] 328b-d; BK VIII, CH 4 338d-340d; CH 6 [259a20–b31] 345a-d / Heavens, BK I, CH 7 [275b26–28] 367a; BK II, CH 2 [284b30–285a1] 376c / Soul, BK II, CH 4 [415b22–416b31] 646a-647b
• 9 Aristotle: Motion of Animals, CH 1 [698a15–21] 233b; CH 4 [700a5–27] 235b-c; CH 6 235d-236b; CH 7 [701a1]–CH 8 [702a12] 236d-238a / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 21-22 269c-271a; BK II, CH 1 [734a17–735a15] 274c-275d; CH 4 [740b13–18] 281a
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 7 170c-171a; BK II, CH 3, 186c-d
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK II [700–729] 23d-24b; [1105–1174] 29a-30a,c
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 18, A 1 104c-105c; Q 27, A 2, ANS 154c-155b; PART I-II, Q 17, A 9, REP 2 692d-693d
• 27 Shakespeare: Othello, ACT V, SC II [7–15] 239a
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK III, 67b-d
• 28 Harvey: On Animal Generation, 412b-415b
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 27 157b-158d
• 31 Descartes: Discourse, PART V, 59a-60c / Objections and Replies, 156a-d
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH IX, SECT 11 140b-c; CH XXIII, SECT 22 209d; SECT 28-29 211b-212a; CH XXVI, SECT 2 217b-d; CH XXVII, SECT 5 220b-c; BK IV, CH X, SECT 19 354a-c
• 42 Kant: Judgement, 579d-580a; 582b-c
• 45 Faraday: Researches in Electricity, 836d
• 49 Darwin: Origin of Species, 62a-b
• 53 James: Psychology, 4a-6b; 68a-69b; 71a

6d. Comparison of the motions of matter with changes in the order of mind

• 7 Plato: Laws, BK X, 764c-765a
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [247b1–248a8] 330b-d / Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 6 [334a10–15] 435a / Metaphysics, BK IX, CH 2 571c-572a / Soul, BK I, CH 3 635b-637b; CH 4 [408a29–b31] 638a-d; BK II, CH 5 [417a21–b21] 647d-648b; BK III, CH 11 [434a16–22] 667a
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK III [177–207] 32b-d
• 17 Plotinus: Third Ennead, TR VI, CH 1-3 106b-108c
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 14, A 15 89b-90b; Q 18, A 1, ANS 104c-105c; A 3, REP 1 106b-107c; Q 19, A 7 114d-115d; Q 27, AA 1-2 153b-155b; Q 34, A 1, REP 2 185b-187b; Q 46, A 2, REP 3 253a-255a; Q 50, A 1, REP 2 269b-270a; Q 73, A 2, ANS 371b-d; Q 75, A 5, REP 2 382a-383b; Q 78, A 3, ANS 410a-411d; Q 82, A 2, REP 2-3 432d-433c; Q 94, A 2, ANS 503a-504a; PART I-II, Q 22, A 1, ANS and REP 1 720d-721c; A 2, REP 3 721c-722c; Q 35, A 6, REP 2 777b-778c; Q 36, A 1, ANS 780c-781b
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 52, A 1, ANS and REP 3 15d-18a; Q 72, A 3, ANS and REP 1-2 113b-114a; Q 113, A 7, ANS and REP 1,4 366a-367c; PART III-II, Q 180, A 6 613a-614d; PART III SUPPL, Q 82, A 3, ANS and REP 2 971a-972d; Q 84, A 3, ANS and REP 1 985d-989b
• 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XVIII [10–33] 80a
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 49a-d; 61a-c
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART II, PROP 7 375a-c; PART III, 395a-d; PROP 1-3 396a-398c; PART IV, PROP 7 426a-b; PART V, PROP 1 452d
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XII, SECT 1 147b-d; CH XXII, SECT 74 199c-200b
• 35 Berkeley: Human Knowledge, SECT 144 441d
• 46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 160c-161a; 178a-179c; 186d-190b
• 53 James: Psychology, 95b-97a

7. The analysis of local motion

7a. Space, place, and void

• 7 Plato: Timaeus, 460c-d; 471b-c / Laws, BK X, 762b-d
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK III, CH 5 [205b10–206a8] 283b-284b; BK IV, CH 1-9 287a-297c / Heavens, BK I, CH 7 [274b30–33] 366a; [275b30–276a18] 367a-b; CH 8 [276a22–27] 367b-c; [277a14–23] 368d-369a; BK II, CH 2 376b-377c; BK III, CH 6 [305a27–28] 396c; BK IV, CH 1-5 399a-404d / Metaphysics, BK V, CH 13 [1020a25–33] 541c; BK IX, CH 6 [1048b9–17] 574a; BK XI, CH 10 [1067a8–33] 595c-596a / Soul, BK I, CH 3 [406a12–21] 635c
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 16, 181a-d; BK II, CH 1-2, 183b,d-184c; CH 6 188c-191a; BK III, CH 14-15, 213b-214c
• 11 Nicomachus: Arithmetic, BK II, 832c
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK I [329–448] 5b-6c; [958–1007] 12d-13b, [1052–1082] 14a-c; BK II [80–250] 16a-18a; BK VI [830–839] 91b-c; [998–1041] 93c-94a
• 16 Ptolemy: Almagest, BK I, 10b-11b
• 16 Copernicus: Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, BK I, 517b-518a; 519a-520b
• 16 Kepler: Epitome, BK IV, 855b; 900b-903a; 922a-b; 931b-932a
• 17 Plotinus: Third Ennead, TR VII, CH 8, 123d-124a
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 8, A 1, REP 3 34d-35c; A 4 37c-38c; Q 52, AA 1-2 278d-280a; Q 53, AA 1-2 280d-283b
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 83, AA 2-5 976c-982c; Q 84, A 2, REP 1 984c-985d; A 3 985d-989b
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 50a; 61b; PART II, 173a; PART IV, 271d
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK II, 32c; BK VI, 110b-c
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 157b-160a passim; THIRD DAY, 202d
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 37 168d-169c; APH 45 176a-177c; APH 48, 180a
• 31 Descartes: Rules, IX, 15c
• 33 Pascal: Vacuum, 366a-367a; 370a / Weight of Air, 405b-415b passim
• 34 Newton: Principles, DEFINITIONS, SCHOL 8b-13a; BK III, GENERAL SCHOL, 370a-372a / Optics, BK III, 520a-522b; 542a-543a
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XIII, SECT 23 153c-d; CH XVII, SECT 4 168b-d
• 35 Berkeley: Human Knowledge, SECT 110-117 434b-436a
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 29c-d; 31d-32a; 55c-56a; 84b-c; 135d [fn 2]
• 45 Faraday: Researches in Electricity, 513d-514c; 685d-686c; 816b,d-819a,c; 824a-b; 855a,c

7b. Natural and violent motion

• 7 Plato: Timaeus, 463d-464b
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK IV, CH 1 [208a9–22] 287b; CH 8 [215a1–13] 294c-d; BK V, CH 6 [230a18–231a19] 311c-312d; BK VIII, CH 4 338d-340d / Heavens, BK I, CH 2 [268b12]–CH 3 [270b13] 359d-361b; CH 7 [274b30–33] 366a; [275b12–29] 366d-367a; CH 7 [276a8]–CH 8 [277b25] 367b-369a; CH 9 [278b22–279a8] 370a-b; BK II, CH 13 [294b31–295a29] 386b-d, BK III, CH 2 391c-393b; CH 5 [304a11–23] 395d-396a; CH 6 [305a22–28] 396c / Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 6 [333b22–33] 434c-d / Soul, BK I, CH 3 [406a12–29] 635c-d
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK I [1052–1094] 14a-c; BK II [184–215] 17b-d
• 16 Ptolemy: Almagest, BK I, 11a-b; BK III, 86b; BK IX, 270b
• 16 Copernicus: Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, BK I, 517b-520b passim
• 16 Kepler: Epitome, BK IV, 929b-930b
• 17 Plotinus: Second Ennead, TR I, CH 8, 39d
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 18, A 1, REP 2 104c-105c; Q 105, A 4, REP 1 541c-542a; A 6, REP 1 543b-544a; PART I-II, Q 6, A 1, ANS and REP 3 644d-646a; A 4 647b-648a; A 5, ANS and REP 2-3 648b-649a; Q 41, A 3 799c-800b
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 75, A 3, ANS and REP 3-5 938a-939d; Q 91, A 2, ANS and REP 6 1017c-1020c
• 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, I [94–142] 107b-d
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 50a; PART IV, 271d
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK VI, 109a-b; 110b-d
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 157d-158a; THIRD DAY, 200a-d; 203d; FOURTH DAY, 238a-b
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK I, APH 66, 115b-c; BK II, APH 36 164a-168d passim; APH 48 179d-188b

7c. Kinds of local motion

7c(1) Rectilinear and rotary or circular motion

• 7 Plato: Republic, BK IV, 350d-351b / Parmenides, 492d-493b / Laws, BK X, 762b-d; 764b-765a
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK IV, CH 5 [212b31–2] 291d; BK VII, CH 4 [248a10–b6] 330d-331b; BK VIII, CH 8-9 348b-353b / Heavens, BK I, CH 2-6 359d-365c; CH 7 [274a22–29] 365d-366a; [275b12–18] 366d; CH 8 [277a12–26] 368b-c; [277b8–18] 368d / Metaphysics, BK XII, CH 6 [1071b10–11] 601b; CH 7 [1072a20–22] 602b / Soul, BK I, CH 3 [406b26–407a13] 636b-637b
• 16 Ptolemy: Almagest, BK I, 6a; 7a-8b; BK III, 86b; BK IX, 270b
• 16 Copernicus: Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, BK I, 514a; 517b-518a; 519b-520b
• 16 Kepler: Epitome, BK IV, 887a; 913a; 931b-933a
• 17 Plotinus: Second Ennead, TR I, CH 3, 36b-c; CH 8 39c-d; TR II, CH 1, 40b-c; CH 2, 41b-c / Sixth Ennead, TR III, CH 24 295b-c
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 7, A 3, ANS 32c-33c; Q 66, A 2, ANS 345d-347b
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK VI, 110b-c
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, FOURTH DAY, 240d; 245b-c
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 35, 163a-d; APH 48, 186b-d
• 34 Newton: Principles, DEF III 5b, DEF V 6a-7a; DEFINITIONS, SCHOL, 11b-12a; LAW 1 14a; LAWS OF MOTION, SCHOL, 19b-20a; BK I, PROP 1-3 and SCHOL 32b-35b; BK II, PROP 53, SCHOL 266a-267a

7c(2) Uniform or variable motion

• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK IV, CH 8 [215a24–216a21] 295a-d; BK V, CH 4 [228b15–229a7] 309d-310a
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK II [225–242] 17d-18a
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 157b-160a; THIRD DAY, 197b-198b; 200a-d; 203d; 205b-d; 209a-c; 224d
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 48, 186b-d
• 34 Newton: Principles, DEF III-IV 5b-6a; LAW I-II 14a-b; COROL IV-VI 18a-19b

7c(3) Absolute or relative motion

• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK IV [387–390] 49b
• 16 Copernicus: Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, BK I, 514b-515a; 519a; BK II, 557a-b
• 16 Kepler: Harmonies of the World, 1015a-b
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK VI, 115a-d
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 36, 165c-166b
• 34 Newton: Principles, DEFINITIONS, SCHOL 8b-13a esp 9a-b; COROL V-VI 19a-b; BK I, PROP 57-61 111b-114b
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XIII, SECT 7-10 149d-150d passim
• 35 Berkeley: Human Knowledge, SECT 110-115 434b-435c
• 53 James: Psychology, 511b-512a

7c(4) Terrestrial and celestial motion

• 7 Plato: Statesman, 587a-b / Laws, BK VII, 729d-730d; BK X, 763d-765c
• 8 Aristotle: Heavens 359a-405a,c esp BK I, CH 2-3 359d-362a / Metaphysics, BK IX, CH 8 [1050b20–28] 576c-d; BK XII, CH 2 [1069b24–27] 599a; CH 6 [1071b32]–CH 7 [1072a22] 601d-602b / Soul, BK I, CH 3 [406b26–407a13] 636b-637b
• 9 Aristotle: Motion of Animals, CH 3 234a-c
• 16 Ptolemy: Almagest, BK I, 5a-6a; 7a-8b; 12a; BK III, 86b-87a; BK IX, 270b; BK XIII, 429a-b
• 16 Copernicus: Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres, BK I, 513b-514b; 517b-518a; 519b-520b
• 16 Kepler: Epitome, BK IV, 888b-895b; 897a-905a passim, esp 904b-905a; 929a-933a; 934b-935b; 940b-941a; 959a-960a
• 17 Plotinus: Second Ennead, TR I, CH 1-4 35a-37b; TR I, CH 8–TR II, CH 2 39c-41c
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 66, A 2, ANS 345d-347b; Q 70, A 3 365b-367a
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 49, A 4, ANS 5a-6a; PART III SUPPL, Q 84, A 3, REP 2 985d-989b
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK VI, 110b-c
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, FOURTH DAY, 245b-d
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 35, 163a-b, APH 36, 165d-166a; APH 48, 186b-d
• 34 Newton: Principles, 1a-2a; BK III 269a-372a passim, esp RULE I-II 270a-271a, PROP I-7 276a-282b, PROP 35, SCHOL 320b-324a, GENERAL SCHOL, 371b-372a / Optics, BK III, 540a-541b

7d. The properties of variable motion: the laws of motion

• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK IV, CH 8 [215a24–216a21] 295a-d; BK VII, CH 4 330d-333a
• 9 Aristotle: Motion of Animals, CH 1-4 233a-235c passim / Gait of Animals, CH 3 243d-244a / Generation of Animals, BK V, CH 3 [768b16–24] 310b-c
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK II [80–99] 16a-b; [184–250] 17b-18b
• 16 Kepler: Epitome, BK IV, 894a; 899a-900a; 905a-906b; 933b-934b; 936a-937a; 938b-939a
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 50a; PART IV, 271d
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK II, 56b-c
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 157b-172d passim; THIRD DAY–FOURTH DAY 197a-260a,c
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 35, 163c-d; APH 36, 166b-c; 167b-c; APH 48 179d-188b
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART II, AXIOM I–LEMMA 7 378c-380b
• 34 Newton: Principles, DEF 1 5b; LAWS OF MOTION 14a-24a; BK I, PROP 1-17 and SCHOL 32b-50a; PROP 30-69 and SCHOL 76a-131a; PROP 94-98 and SCHOL 152b-157b; BK II 159a-267a passim / Optics, BK III, 540a-542a
• 34 Huygens: Light, CH I, 558b-563b
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 4 178d-179c; CH XXIII, SECT 17 209a; SECT 22 209d; SECT 28-29 211b-212a
• 35 Berkeley: Human Knowledge, SECT 50 422c; SECT 102 432d-433a
• 35 Hume: Human Understanding, SECT IV, DIV 27, 460c; SECT VII, DIV 57, 475d-476b [fn 2]
• 38 Montesquieu: Spirit of Laws, BK I, 1b
• 45 Fourier: Theory of Heat, 169a-b
• 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, EPILOGUE II, 694d-695c

8. Change of size

8a. The increase and decrease of inanimate bodies

• 7 Plato: Timaeus, 460c-d / Laws, BK X, 762b-c
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK IV, CH 1 [209a27–209b] 288a; CH 6 [213a19–22] 293b; CH 9 296b-297c; BK VII, CH 2 [245a12–18] 328d-329a; BK VIII, CH 3 [253b12–23] 337d / Heavens, BK I, CH 3 [270a23–36] 361c / Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 6 [333b35–a3] 434b / Soul, BK II, CH 4 [415b28–416a18] 646a-c
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 7 170c-171a; BK II, CH 3, 186c-d
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK I [311–328] 5a; BK II [62–79] 15d-16a; [1105–1174] 29a-30a,c; BK V [235–323] 64a-65b
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 119, A 1, ANS 604c-607b
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 52, AA 1-2 15d-19a; PART III-II, Q 24, A 5 492b-493d; A 6, ANS 493d-494b; PART III, Q 7, A 12, REP 1 754c-755c
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART IV, 271d-272a
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 139b-141d; 151c-154b
• 28 Harvey: On Animal Generation, 412b
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 40, 171a-172d; APH 48, 180a-181a; 184a-c
• 34 Newton: Principles, BK III, PROP 6, COROL IV 281b / Optics, BK III, 539b
• 45 Lavoisier: Elements of Chemistry, PART I, 9a-15c esp 9a-10b
• 45 Fourier: Theory of Heat, 184a-185b; 192a-b

8b. Growth in living organisms

• 7 Plato: Timaeus, 471d-472a
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK II, CH 1 [193b13–19] 269d-270a; BK VI, CH 10 [241a32–b2] 325c; BK VIII, CH 7 [260a29–b1] 346b-c / Generation and Corruption, BK I, CH 2 [315a26–b3] 410d-411a; CH 5 417b-420b; BK II, CH 6 [333b35–a3] 434b; CH 8 [335a10–14] 436c / Metaphysics, BK V, CH 4 [1014b20–26] 535a / Soul, BK II, CH 4 [415b28–416a18] 646a-c
• 9 Aristotle: History of Animals, BK V, CH 19 [550b26–31] 77d; CH 33 [558a17–24] 84d-85a; BK VII, CH 1 [582a21–25] 107d / Motion of Animals, CH 5 235c-d / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 18 [723a9–23] 263a-b; CH 22 [730a33–b5] 270d; BK II, CH 1 [733b1–4] 273d; [735a13–26] 275d-276a; CH 4 [739b34–741a2] 280d-281d; CH 6 [744b28–745a9] 286a-d
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 2, 167b-d; CH 5 169b-c; CH 7 170c-171a; CH 11 172b-d, BK II, CH 3 185a-186d
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK I [146–264] 2d-4b; BK II [1105–1174] 29a-30a,c; BK IV [858–876] 55b-c
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, SECOND DAY, 187b-d
• 28 Harvey: Circulation of the Blood, 320a-b / On Animal Generation, 353b-354a; 388c-d; 408c-409b, 412b-415b esp 415a; 441a-443b; 494a-c
• 49 Darwin: Origin of Species, 71a-c

9. Change of quality

• 7 Plato: Parmenides, 509a-510a / Theaetetus, 533a-534a
• 8 Aristotle: Categories, CH 5 [4a10–b19] 8b-9a; CH 14 [15a14–32] 20d-21a / Topics, BK VI, CH 9 [145a2–13] 198c-d / Physics, BK I, CH 7 [190a5–9] 266b; BK V, CH 2 [226a26–29] 306d; [226b1–9] 307a; BK VI, CH 10 [241a26–32] 325b-c; BK VII, CH 2 [244b1–245a12] 328b-d; CH 3 329a-330d; BK VIII, CH 7 [260a26–b14] 346b-c / Heavens, BK I, CH 3 [270a26–36] 361c; CH 12 [283b17–23] 375c-d / Generation and Corruption, BK I, CH 1-4 409a-417a esp CH 4 416c-417a / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 8 [989a18–29] 507b-c; BK V, CH 21 544a-b; BK XI, CH 12 [1068b15–19] 597c / Sense and the Sensible, CH 6 [446b27–447a9] 685b-c
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 2, 167b-168b
• 17 Plotinus: Third Ennead, TR VI, CH 8-10 111c-113a
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 48, A 4, ANS and REP 3 262a-263a
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 50, A 1, REP 3 6a-7b; Q 52, A 1, ANS and REP 3 15d-18a; PART III SUPPL, Q 82, A 3, ANS and REP 2 971a-972d; Q 91, A 1, REP 2,4 1016b-1017c
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART III, 172b
• 34 Newton: Optics, BK III, 541b
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXVI, SECT 1-2 217a-d
• 35 Berkeley: Human Knowledge, SECT 25-33 417d-419a passim, esp SECT 25-26 417d-418a

9a. Physical and chemical change: compounds and mixtures

• 7 Plato: Timaeus, 448b-d; 459d-462b
• 8 Aristotle: Topics, BK VI, CH 14 [151a20–32] 206a / Heavens, BK I, CH 3 [270a26–36] 361c, CH 5 [271b18–23] 362d-363a; BK III, CH 3 393c-d; CH 8 [306b22–29] 398a / Generation and Corruption, BK I, CH 2 [315a28–33] 410d; CH 10 426c-428d; BK II, CH 6-8 433d-436d / Meteorology, BK III, CH 6 [378a13]–BK IV, CH 12 [390b21] 482c-494d / Metaphysics, BK VII, CH 17 [1041b12–33] 565d-566a,c / Sense and the Sensible, CH 3 [440a33–b13] 677d-678a
• 9 Aristotle: Parts of Animals, BK II, CH 1 [646a12–24] 170a-b
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK I [635–920] 8d-12b; BK II [730–864] 24b-26a
• 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK X, SECT 7 297b-c
• 17 Plotinus: Second Ennead, TR I, CH 6-8 37d-39d, TR VII, CH 1-2 62d-64b
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 71, A 1, REP 1-2 367a-368b; Q 76, A 4, REP 4 393a-394c; Q 91, A 1 484a-485b
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 50, A 1, REP 3 6a-7b; PART III, Q 2, A 1, ANS 710a-711c; PART III SUPPL, Q 74, A 1, REP 3 925c-926c, A 5 929d-931b; Q 80, A 3, REP 3 958b-959c; Q 82, A 1, ANS 968a-970c
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK I, 13b-14d; BK II, 29c-30a
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, FIRST DAY, 148c-d
• 28 Harvey: On Animal Generation, 495c-496d
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK I, APH 50 111b; BK II, APH 7 139c-140a; APH 48, 181a-183a
• 34 Newton: Optics, BK III, 517b-518a; 531b-542a esp 541b
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXVI, SECT 1-2 217a-d
• 45 Lavoisier: Elements of Chemistry, PART I-II, 22c-86a,c; PART III, 87c-d; 103b-c; 105d; 117a-128c esp 117a-118a
• 45 Fourier: Theory of Heat, 169b
• 45 Faraday: Researches in Electricity, 309a-312a; 312c-313d; 314a-b; 315a-b, 327a-422a,c passim; 541b,d-584a,c passim
• 53 James: Psychology, 68a-b; 104a-105a; 876a

9b. Biological change: vital alterations

• 7 Plato: Laws, BK I, 659c-d; BK VII, 713d
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK VII, CH 3 [246b10–19] 329c-330a
• 9 Aristotle: History of Animals, BK V, CH 19 [551a13–552a5] 78a-79b; CH 30 [556b5–9] 83b; BK VII, CH 1 106b,d-108a; BK IX, CH 50 [631b19–632a32] 157a-c; CH 49B [632b14–633a29] 157d-158c / Motion of Animals, CH 5 235c-d; CH 7 [701b1]–CH 8 [702a22] 236d-237c; CH 11 [703b8–21] 239b-c / Generation of Animals, BK I, CH 18 [724a20–b3] 264b-d; BK II, CH 1 [733b1–17] 273d-274a; CH 5 [741b5–15] 282c; CH 6 [742a8–16] 283a; BK V, CH 1 [778a15–20] 320a-b; CH 3 [782a1–20] 324a-b
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 5, 169b; CH 8 171a; BK III, CH 7, 203c-204c
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK IV [1030–1057] 57c-d
• 25 Montaigne: Essays, 292d-293d
• 28 Harvey: On Animal Generation, 412a-415b; 450b-d
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART IV, PROP 38-39 436b-437a
• 49 Darwin: Origin of Species, 10a-c; 61d-62a; 219d-222a esp 221b-222a, 224b-c / Descent of Man, 354c-355a
• 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, EPILOGUE I, 665a-d
• 53 James: Psychology, 68b-73b
• 54 Freud: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 655a-657d esp 655b, 656b-657c / Civilization and Its Discontents, 770b

10. Substantial change: generation and corruption

• 7 Plato: Symposium, 165c-166b / Phaedo, 226d-228a / Republic, BK VII, 403a-b, BK X, 434c-436a / Parmenides, 504c-d; 509a-d / Laws, BK X, 761b-762c
• 8 Aristotle: Topics, BK VII, CH 3 [153b31–34] 209a / Physics, BK II, CH 1 [193b19–22] 270a / Generation and Corruption 409a-441a,c / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 3 [983b8–19] 501d; CH 8 [988b22–989a24] 506d-508a; BK III, CH 2 [994a19–b8] 512c-d; BK VII, CH 7-9 555a-558a; BK XI, CH 11 596a-d; BK XII, CH 2-3 598c-599d / Soul, BK II, CH 4 [416a8–17] 646d-647a
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 2, 167d-168b; CH 5 169b-c, CH 12 172d-173c
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK II [569–580] 22b, [865–1022] 26a-28a, BK III [117–129] 31c-d; [203–230] 32c-33a; [323–349] 34b-c; [417–869] 35c-41a; BK V [783–836] 71b-72a
• 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK VII, SECT 23 281b; SECT 25 281c
• 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK VIII, par 18 49a-b
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 15, A 1, ANS 91b-92a; Q 19, A 9, ANS 116d-117d; Q 27, A 2 154c-155b; Q 33, A 2, REP 4 181c-182b; Q 41, A 5, ANS and REP 1 222b-223b; Q 44, A 2, ANS 239b-240a, Q 45, A 2, REP 2 242d-244a; Q 50, A 5, REP 3 274b-275a; Q 53, A 3, ANS 283b-284d; Q 65, A 4, ANS 342b-343c; Q 66, A 1, ANS 343d-345c; A 2, ANS 345d-347b; Q 67, A 3, REP 1 351b-352a; Q 71, A 1, REP 1 367a-368b; Q 72, A 1, REP 5 368b-369d, Q 75, A 6, ANS 383c-384c; Q 90, A 2, ANS 481d-482c; Q 96, A 1, ANS 510b-511b; Q 119 604c-608d; PART I-II, Q 22, A 1, ANS and REP 3 720d-721c
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 53, A 1 19d-21a; A 3 21d-22d; Q 85, A 6 182d-184a; Q 110, A 2, REP 3 349a-d; PART III-II, Q 1, A 7, REP 3 385c-387a; PART III SUPPL, Q 75, A 3, ANS 938a-939d; Q 79, A 1, REP 3-4 951b-953b; A 2, REP 1 953b-955c; Q 80, A 5, REP 3 963a-964b; Q 82, A 1, REP 2 968a-970c; Q 86, A 2, ANS and REP 1-2 993c-994d
• 22 Chaucer: Knight’s Tale [3011–3034] 209b
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART IV, 249b-250a
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK V, 104d-105d
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 35, 162c
• 31 Descartes: Objections and Replies, 127c-d
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART I, PROP 6 356b-c
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXVI, SECT 1-2 217a-d passim; BK III, CH III, SECT 19 259c-260a
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 74b-76c, 82a-83b
• 45 Lavoisier: Elements of Chemistry, PART I, 41b-c
• 46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 187a-b; 189b-190a
• 53 James: Psychology, 95b-98a passim
• 54 Freud: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 652b-653c; 655a-657d

10a. Substantial change in the realm of bodies: the transmutation of the elements

• 7 Plato: Timaeus, 456b-c; 458b-460b
• 8 Aristotle: Heavens, BK I, CH 3 360d-362a; BK III, CH 1 [298b24–299a1] 389b,d-390b, CH 2 [301b33–302a9] 393b; CH 6 [304b23]–CH 8 [306b29] 396a-398a / Generation and Corruption 409a-441a,c esp BK I, CH 1-3 409a-416c, CH 6 [322b1–21] 420b-d, BK II, CH 4-11 431b-441a,c / Meteorology, BK I, CH 3 [339b36–a3] 445d; BK IV, CH 1 482b,d-483c / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 3 [983b7–984a16] 501d-502b; CH 8 [989a18–29] 507b-c
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 2, 167d-168b; BK II, CH 3, 185c-d; CH 4, 187a-b; BK III, CH 7, 203c
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK I [635–920] 8d-12b; BK II [80–108] 16a-b; BK V [235–305] 64a-65a; [380–415] 66a-c
• 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK III, CH 13, 189a
• 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK II, SECT 3 257a-b; BK IV, SECT 21 265b-c; SECT 46 267c; BK V, SECT 13 271b; BK VII, SECT 18 281a; SECT 23 281b; SECT 25 281c; SECT 50 283a; BK X, SECT 7 297b-c
• 17 Plotinus: Second Ennead, TR I, CH 3-4 36b-37b; TR IV, CH 6 51d-52a
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 66, A 2, ANS 345d-347b; Q 67, A 2, ANS 350b-351a; Q 91, A 1, ANS and REP 3 484a-485b
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 74, A 1, ANS and REP 3 925c-926c; A 5, ANS 929d-931b; Q 91, A 5, ANS and REP 4 1024a-1025b
• 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, VII [121–148] 116b-c
• 22 Chaucer: Canon’s Yeoman’s Prologue 471b-474a / Canon’s Yeoman’s Tale 474b-487a
• 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 14b-c / Novum Organum, BK I, APH 66 114d-115c; BK II, APH 35, 162c
• 34 Newton: Optics, BK III, 531a-b
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK III, CH II, SECT 2 128a-b; CH XXVI, SECT 1-2 217a-d passim
• 40 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 148a-b
• 41 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, 299d-300a
• 42 Kant: Judgement, 582b-c
• 44 Boswell: Johnson, 262c
• 45 Lavoisier: Elements of Chemistry, PART I, 41b-c

10b. Plant, animal, and human reproduction

• 7 Plato: Timaeus, 476b-d / Statesman, 586c-588a
• 8 Aristotle: Meteorology, BK IV, CH 1 [379b6–8] 483c; CH 3 [381a9–13] 485d; CH 11 [389a28–b7] 493c / Metaphysics, BK VII, CH 9 [1034a32–b8] 557c-d; BK IX, CH 7 [1049a12–18] 574d; BK XII, CH 6 [1071b29–31] 601c; CH 7 [1072b30–1073a2] 603a
• 9 Aristotle: Generation of Animals 255a-331a,c passim, esp BK I, CH 1-2 255a-256c, CH 17-22 261b-271a, BK II, CH 1 [733b23]–CH 5 [741b24] 274a-282d
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 5-6 169b-170c; BK II, CH 3 185a-186d
• 18 Augustine: City of God, BK XII, CH 25 358b-359a; BK XXII, CH 24, 609c-610a
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 41, A 5, ANS and REP 1 222b-223b; Q 72, A 1, REP 4 368b-369d; Q 73, A 3, ANS 371d-372c; Q 78, A 2, REP 2-3 409a-410a; Q 90, A 2, ANS 481d-482c; Q 92, A 1, ANS 488d-489d; A 4, ANS and REP 1 491b-d; Q 98 516d-519a; Q 115, A 2, REP 3-4 587c-588c; A 3 588c-589c; Q 118, A 1 600a-601c; Q 119 604c-608d
• 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PURGATORY, XXV [34–78] 91d-92a; PARADISE, VII [121–141] 116b-c
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK I, 14b-c; BK V, 105a-b
• 28 Harvey: Motion of the Heart, 278a / On Animal Generation 329a-496d passim, esp 331a-b, 383d-396a, 400c-429c, 496b-d
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 50, 192a-b
• 32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK IV [660–673] 166b-167a
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXVI, SECT 2 217b-d
• 42 Kant: Judgement, 582b-c
• 54 Freud: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 654c-656d; 659d-660b

10c. The incorruptibility of atoms, the heavenly bodies, and spiritual substances

• 8 Aristotle: Heavens, BK I, CH 3 [270a2–36] 361b-c; CH 9 [279a12]–CH 12 [283b24] 370b-375d / Metaphysics, BK IX, CH 8 [1050b20–28] 576c-d; BK XII, CH 2 [1069b24–27] 599a; CH 6-8 601b-605a
• 9 Aristotle: Motion of Animals, CH 4 [699b12–700a6] 234d-235b
• 10 Galen: Natural Faculties, BK I, CH 12, 173a-b; BK II, CH 6, 189c-190a
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK I [483–634] 7a-8d; BK II [842–864] 25c-26a
• 16 Ptolemy: Almagest, BK I, 5a-6a; BK XIII, 429a-b
• 16 Kepler: Epitome, BK IV, 929b-930b
• 17 Plotinus: Second Ennead, TR I, CH 1-4 35a-37b; CH 8 39c-d
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 9, A 2 39c-40d; Q 10, A 2, REP 1-2 41d-42c; A 3, ANS 42c-43b; A 5 44b-45c; Q 46, A 1, REP 2-3,5 250a-252d; Q 50, A 5 274b-275a; Q 58, A 3, ANS 301d-302d; Q 63, A 1, REP 2 325c-326c; Q 66, A 2 345d-347b; Q 68, A 1, ANS 354a-355c; Q 70, A 3 365b-367a; Q 97, A 1, ANS 513c-514c; Q 104, A 1, REP 1,3 534c-536c
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 49, A 4, ANS 5a-6a
• 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, VII [121–148] 116b-c; XII [52–60] 126a
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART I 355a-372d passim, esp DEF 1 355a, DEF 3,6 355b, AXIOM 1-2 355c-d, PROP 1-15 355d-361d
• 32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK I [128–142] 96a-b; BK III [81–105] 113a-b; BK VI [296–353] 202b-204a esp [320–353] 203a-204a; [430–436] 205b
• 33 Pascal: Vacuum, 358a
• 34 Newton: Optics, BK III, 541b
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 137a-140c
• 53 James: Psychology, 68a-b

11. The apprehension of change: by sense, by reason

• 7 Plato: Cratylus, 113c-114a,c / Phaedo, 231c-232a / Timaeus, 447b-d; 457c-d / Sophist, 565a-569a esp 568a-569a / Laws, BK X, 765a-b
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK IV, CH 11 298c-300a / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 6 [987a29–b18] 505b-d, CH 9 [990b9–15] 508d; BK III, CH 2 [996a18–b26] 514d-515b; BK IV, CH 5 528c-530c; CH 8 [1012a23–32] 532d; BK XI, CH 6 [1063a10–b8] 591b-d / Soul, BK III, CH 1 [425a14–10] 657b-d
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK I [311–328] 5a; BK II [62–141] 15d-16d; [308–332] 19a-b
• 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK VII, par 23 50b-c; BK XI, par 17-41 93b-99b / Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 8-9 626c-627a; BK II, CH 38 654b-c
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 14, A 15, REP 2 89b-90b; Q 78, A 3, REP 2 410a-411d; Q 84, A 1 esp REP 3 440d-442a; Q 86, A 3 463b-d
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART II, 172b; PART IV, 249c-d
• 25 Montaigne: Essays, 291b-294b
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 5-6 138b-139c; APH 23 153d-154c; APH 40-41 170c-174b
• 31 Descartes: Rules, XII, 24a
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH V 131b; CH VII, SECT 8-9 132d-133a; CH VIII, SECT 18 136a-b; CH XIV, SECT 6-12 156b-157c; CH XXIII, SECT 28-29 211b-212a; CH XXVI, SECT 1-2 217a-d
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 27a-33d esp 28b-c, 29c-d; 43a-b; 55c-56a; 76c-83b esp 76c-d; 91d-93c
• 53 James: Psychology, 405b-406b; 418b-419b; 510a-512a; 563a-567a; 612a-616b esp 616a; 634b-635a

12. Emotional aspects of change

12a. Rest and motion in relation to pleasure and pain

• 7 Plato: Gorgias, 275c-277c / Timaeus, 463d-464b / Philebus, 619d-620b, 626a-c; 631d-632d / Laws, BK VII, 713c-715a
• 8 Aristotle: Topics, BK IV, CH 1 [121a27–39] 169b
• 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK VII, CH 11 [1152b8]–CH 12 [1153a17] 403c-404b, CH 14 [1154b20–30] 406c; BK X, CH 3 [1173a29–b7] 427c-d; CH 4 [1174a13–b14] 428b-429a / Politics, BK VIII, CH 5 [1340a1–19] 545c-546a / Rhetoric, BK I, CH 11 [1369b33–1370a17] 613a-c, [1371b26–30] 614d
• 17 Plotinus: Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 18-21, 167a-168c
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I-II, Q 32, A 2 759d-760d
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 50a
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART III 395a-422a,c
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XXI, SECT 29-48 184d-190d passim
• 50 Marx: Capital, 166b-c
• 53 James: Psychology, 410a
• 54 Freud: Narcissism, 403d-404a / General Introduction, 592c-593a / Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 639b-640a; 648d-649c / Ego and Id, 701a-b

12b. The love and hatred of change

• 5 Sophocles: Oedipus at Colonus [1211–1248] 125b-c
• 6 Herodotus: History, BK VII, 224d-225a
• 7 Plato: Republic, BK IV, 344b-d / Laws, BK VII, 717d-718d
• 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK VII, CH 14 [1154b20–30] 406c
• 10 Hippocrates: Fractures, par 1 74b,d-75a / Aphorisms, SECT II, par 50 133d
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK II [1105–1174] 29a-30a,c; BK III [912–977] 41d-42c; [1053–1084] 43c-44a; BK V [156–173] 63a-b; [1379–1435] 79a-d
• 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK II, SECT 14 258d; SECT 17 259b-d; BK IV, SECT 3 263b-264a; SECT 5 264b; SECT 12 264c; SECT 33 266c-d; BK V, SECT 10 270c-d; SECT 13 271b; SECT 23 272b; SECT 33 273b-c; BK VI, SECT 15 275a-b; SECT 36 277c; BK VII, SECT 18-19 281a; SECT 35 282a; SECT 49 282d; BK VIII, SECT 6 285d-286a; SECT 16,18 286d; BK IX, SECT 21 293b-c; SECT 28 293d-294a; BK X, SECT 7 297b-c; SECT 31 300a-b; SECT 34 301a
• 13 Virgil: Aeneid, BK I [441–462] 115a-b esp [462] 115b
• 14 Plutarch: Aemilius Paulus, 225b-c; 229a-c
• 17 Plotinus: First Ennead, TR IV 12b-19b
• 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK VIII, par 18 57d-58a; par 25-26 60a-b / Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 9 627a
• 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, HELL, VII [61–96] 10b-c; XIV [94–120] 20c-d; XXVI [90–142] 39a-c; PURGATORY, XI [73–117] 69c-70a; XIV [91–126] 74c-75a; XXVIII [76–148] 96d-97c; PARADISE, XV–XVI 128b-132a
• 22 Chaucer: Wife of Bath’s Prologue [5583–6410] 256a-269b
• 23 Machiavelli: Prince, CH VI, 9b-c
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 79c-d; PART II, 150c; 154b-c; PART IV, 271d
• 25 Montaigne: Essays, 33b-36a; 47a-51a; 131b-132a; 281a-282a; 292d-294b; 318c-319b; 458b-c, 462c-465c; 478c-479c; 540d-541c
• 26 Shakespeare: 2nd Henry IV, ACT I, SC I [45–56] 483b
• 27 Shakespeare: Hamlet, ACT I, SC II [68–73] 32b; ACT V, SC I [202–240] 66c-d / Troilus and Cressida, ACT III, SC III [145–189] 124a-c; ACT IV, SC IV [26–50] 128c / King Lear, ACT IV, SC I [10–12] 269c / Sonnets, XV 588b-c, XXV 590a; XLIX 593d; LX 595b-c, LXIV–LXV 596a-b; CXVI 604a, CXXIII 605a
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, PREF, 2a
• 28 Harvey: Motion of the Heart, 274a; 285b-c
• 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 14c-15c esp 15a-b; 16c-d; 61b; 65b-c; 90b-d / Novum Organum, BK I, APH 90 124d-125a
• 31 Descartes: Discourse, PART II, 45d
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART III, PROP 4-11 398d-400b; PART V, PROP 6, SCHOL 454a
• 33 Pascal: Pensées, 129-131 195b; 135 196a; 139-143 196b-200a; 164-172 202b-203b; 181 204b / Vacuum, 355a-358b
• 35 Locke: Civil Government, CH XIX, SECT 223 76c-d / Human Understanding, 85a-c
• 36 Swift: Gulliver, PART III, 105a-106b
• 38 Rousseau: Inequality, 335c
• 43 Declaration of Independence: [15–20] 1b
• 43 Federalist: NUMBER 14, 62a-d
• 43 Mill: Liberty, 293b-302c passim / Representative Government, 336b-c; 350c; 377d-378a
• 46 Hegel: Philosophy of History, INTRO, 178a-c; PART I, 209b; 258b
• 47 Goethe: Faust, DEDICATION la-b; PART II [11,573–586] 281b-282a; [11,612–622] 282b-283a
• 49 Darwin: Descent of Man, 302b; 577c-d
• 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK V, 221b-d; BK VI, 238c-243d passim; 267c; BK VII, 275a-276b; 294a-b; BK VIII, 305b-d; 307d-309c; BK IX, 356b-d; BK X, 394d; 403a-405a; BK XII, 538a-539c; 556d-557a; BK XV, 639c; EPILOGUE I, 645a-646c; 668a-669c
• 53 James: Psychology, 524a-525a; 707b-708a
• 54 Freud: Beyond the Pleasure Principle, 651b-d

13. The problem of the eternity of motion or change

• 7 Plato: Phaedrus, 124b-c / Timaeus, 450c-451a; 460c-d
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK IV, CH 13 [222a29–b8] 302b; BK VIII, CH 1-4 334a-340d; CH 8 348b-352a / Heavens, BK I, CH 2 [269b2–10] 360c-d; CH 3 [270b1–24] 361c-362a; BK I, CH 9 [279a12]–BK II, CH 1 [284b6] 370b-376a; BK II, CH 6 379c-380c / Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 10-11 437d-441a,c / Meteorology, BK I, CH 14 [352a16–353a27] 458b-459a,c passim; BK II, CH 3 [356b2–357a4] 462b-c / Metaphysics, BK IX, CH 8 [1050b20–28] 576c-d; BK XII, CH 6 [1071b3]–CH 7 [1072a22] 601b-602b; CH 7 [1073a2–34] 603a-c
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK I [951–1051] 12d-14a esp [988–1007] 13b; BK II [80–141] 16a-d; [294–302] 18d; [569–580] 22b
• 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK V, SECT 13 271b; SECT 23 272b; BK VI, SECT 15 275a-b; BK IX, SECT 28 293d-294a; BK XI, SECT 27 306b
• 16 Ptolemy: Almagest, BK XIII, 429a-b
• 16 Kepler: Epitome, BK IV, 888b-891a
• 17 Plotinus: Third Ennead, TR VII, CH 7-8 122d-124c; CH 11-13 126a-129a / Fourth Ennead, TR IV, CH 7-8 161d-162d
• 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK XI, par 10-17 91d-93c; BK XII, par 8-9 101a-c; par 12-16 101d-103a; par 29 105d-106a; par 33 107b-c; par 39-40 109a-110a / City of God, BK XI, CH 4-6 324a-325d; BK XII, CH 10-20 348b-357a
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 10, A 2, REP 2 41d-42c; A 4, ANS 43b-44b; Q 14, A 12, ANS 85d-86d; Q 46, AA 1-2 250a-255a; Q 75, A 1, REP 1 378b-379c
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART III SUPPL, Q 77, A 2, ANS 945a-946b; Q 91, A 2 1017c-1020c
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK I, 56b-c
• 28 Galileo: Two New Sciences, THIRD DAY, 224d
• 30 Bacon: Novum Organum, BK II, APH 35, 163a; APH 48, 186b-c
• 31 Descartes: Rules, XII, 27b-c
• 34 Newton: Principles, LAW I 14a; BK III, PROP 10 284a-285a / Optics, BK III, 540a-541b
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XIV, SECT 26 160c-d
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 135a-137a,c; 152a-d; 160b-161d
• 53 James: Psychology, 882a

14. The theory of the prime mover: the order and hierarchy of movers and moved

• 7 Plato: Phaedrus, 124b-c / Statesman, 587a-589c / Laws, BK X, 758d-765c
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK VII, CH 1-2 326a-329a; BK VIII 334a-355d / Heavens, BK III, CH 2 [300b8–301a12] 391d-392c / Generation and Corruption, BK I, CH 7 421d-423b; BK II, CH 6 [334a6–9] 435a / Metaphysics, BK IV, CH 8 [1012a22–32] 532d; BK V, CH 11 [1018b19–22] 539c-d; BK IX, CH 8 [1049b17–28] 575b-c; [1050a3–b6] 575d-576b; BK XII, CH 4 [1070b22–35] 600b; CH 5 [1071a30–36] 601a; CH 6-8 601b-605a
• 9 Aristotle: Motion of Animals, CH 1 [698a10–15] 233a; CH 3-6 234a-236b
• 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK I, CH 14, 120d-121a
• 16 Ptolemy: Almagest, BK I, 5a-b
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 2, A 3, ANS 12c-14a; Q 3, A 1, ANS 14b-15b; Q 9, A 1, REP 1 38c-39c; Q 19, A 1, REP 3 108d-109c; Q 25, A 2, REP 3 144c-145b; Q 46, A 1, REP 5 250a-252d; Q 51, A 3, REP 3 277a-278c; Q 60, A 1, REP 2 310b-311a; Q 75, A 1, REP 1 378b-379c; QQ 105-119 538d-608d passim; PART I-II, Q 1, A 4, ANS 612a-613a; A 6, ANS 614a-c; Q 6, A 1, REP 3 644d-646a
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 109, A 1, ANS 338b-339c; PART III SUPPL, Q 91, A 1, REP 2 1016b-1017c
• 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, I [103–142] 107b-d; XII [52–84] 126a-b; XXVII [106–120] 148b-c; XXVIII [1–78] 148d-149c
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART I, 79d-80a
• 28 Gilbert: Loadstone, BK VI, 107c-110d
• 28 Harvey: On Animal Generation, 415b-417a esp 416b-c; 426a-429b; 443a-c; 490d-493a esp 492b-c
• 32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK V [469–505] 185b-186a
• 33 Pascal: Pensées, 77 186a
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 140b,d-145c; 177b-179b; 239a-240b / Practical Reason, 334b-337a,c / Judgement, 597d-599d; 610b-613a,c

15. The immutable

15a. The immutability of the objects of thought: the realm of truth

• Old Testament: Psalms, 100:5; 117:2; 119:160; 146:6—(D) Psalms, 99:5; 116:2; 118:160; 145:7 / Proverbs, 8:22-30
• Apocrypha: Ecclesiasticus, 24:9—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 24:14
• New Testament: II John, 2
• 7 Plato: Cratylus, 113c-114a,c / Phaedrus, 125a-b / Symposium, 167b-d / Phaedo, 231b-232b / Republic, BK V, 371a-373c / Timaeus, 447a-d; 457b-458a / Parmenides, 487c-491a / Sophist, 568a-b / Philebus, 634b-635b / Seventh Letter, 809c-810d
• 8 Aristotle: Categories, CH 5 [4a10–b12] 8b-9a / Posterior Analytics, BK I, CH 8 104a-b / Metaphysics, BK I, CH 6 505b-506b; CH 9 508c-511c; BK III, CH 1 [995b13–18] 514a; [995b31–996a1] 514b; [996a4–9] [996a13–15] 514c; CH 2 [997b34–998a19] 516a-d; CH 3 [998b14]–CH 4 [999b24] 517b-518c; CH 4 [1001a4]–CH 6 [1002b31] 519d-521d; BK VII, CH 8 [1033b19–1034a8] 556d-557b; CH 10 [1035b32–1036a12] 559b-c; CH 11 [1036b32–1037a4] 560b-c; CH 13-14 562a-563c; CH 15 [1040a8–b4] 564a-c, CH 16 [1040b28–1041a4] 564d-565a; BK IX, CH 8 [1050b35–1051a2] 576d-577a; BK X, CH 10 586c-d; BK XI, CH 1 [1059a33–b14] 587b-c; BK XII, CH 1 [1069a30–b2] 598b-c; CH 3 [1070a4–30] 599b-d; BK XIII, CH 1-5 607a-611d
• 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK I, CH 6 341b-342c
• 11 Nicomachus: Arithmetic, BK I, 811b-d; 813d-814b
• 17 Plotinus: Second Ennead, TR V, CH 3 58d-59c / Third Ennead, TR IX 136a-138a,c / Fifth Ennead, TR VIII, CH 1 238a-b; TR IX, CH 5-13 248a-251c
• 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK I, par 9, 3a; BK XI, par 9-11 91c-92b / Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 8-10 626c-627b, BK II, CH 38 654b-c
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 5, A 3, REP 4 25a-d; Q 10, A 3, REP 3 42c-43b; Q 16, AA 7-8 99a-100d; Q 44, A 1, REP 3 238b-239a; Q 84, A 1, ANS and REP 3 440d-442a; Q 85, A 1, REP 2 451c-453c; Q 86, A 3 463b-d; Q 113, A 1, ANS 576a-d
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 53, A 1, ANS and REP 2-3 19d-21a; Q 94, AA 5-6 224d-226b
• 30 Bacon: Advancement of Learning, 27d-28c; 43d-44c
• 31 Descartes: Discourse, PART IV, 52d-53a / Meditations, V 93a-96a / Objections and Replies, 123b; 216d-217d; 228a-c; 229c-d
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART I, DEF 8 355c; PROP 7 356c; PROP 8, SCHOL 2 356d-357d; PROP 17, SCHOL 362c-363c; PART II, PROP 32 385c; PROP 34 385d; PROP 37-39 386b-387a; PROP 40, DEMONST 387a; PROP 43-47 388c-391a
• 32 Milton: Areopagitica, 384a-b
• 33 Pascal: Vacuum, 358b
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH III, SECT 2 128a-b; BK III, CH III, SECT 19 259c-260a; CH VI, SECT 6 269d-270a; BK IV, CH I, SECT 9 308c-309b; CH III, SECT 31 323c-d; CH XI, SECT 14 358b-c
• 42 Kant: Judgement, 551a-553c
• 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, ADDITIONS, 1, 115a / Philosophy of History, INTRO, 156d-157b
• 47 Goethe: Faust, PRELUDE [73–74] 3a
• 50 Marx-Engels: Communist Manifesto, 428b-d
• 53 James: Psychology, 299a-304b esp 301a, 302a-304b; 869a; 879b-882a

15b. The unalterability of the decrees of fate

• 4 Homer: Iliad, BK XVIII [52–126] 130c-131c; BK XXII [131–223] 156c-157c
• 5 Aeschylus: Prometheus Bound [507–525] 45a-b / Agamemnon [1018–1033] 63a
• 5 Euripides: Heracles Mad [1313–1353] 376c-d / Iphigenia Among the Tauri [1435–1499] 424a-d
• 6 Herodotus: History, BK I, 6c-10a; 20b-22a; BK II, 77a-b
• 12 Lucretius: Nature of Things, BK II [251–293] 18b-d
• 12 Epictetus: Discourses, BK I, CH 12 118d-120b; BK II, CH 8 146a-147c
• 12 Aurelius: Meditations, BK III, SECT 11 262a-b; BK X, SECT 5 296d
• 13 Virgil: Aeneid, BK X [606–632] 318b-319b
• 14 Plutarch: Caesar, 601c-604d
• 18 Augustine: City of God, BK V, CH 1-10 207d-216c
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 116, A 3 594c-595a
• 22 Chaucer: Troilus and Cressida, BK IV, STANZA 136-154 106a-108b
• 32 Milton: Arcades [54–83] 26b-27a / Paradise Lost, BK VII [170–173] 220b-221a
• 51 Tolstoy: War and Peace, BK IX, 342a-344b; EPILOGUE I, 645a-650c; EPILOGUE II, 675a-c

15c. The immutability of God

• Old Testament: Exodus, 15:18 / Deuteronomy, 32:39-40 / I Chronicles, 16:34-36—(D) I Paralipomenon, 16:34-36 / Psalms, 9:5-8; 10:16; 29:10-11; 33:10-11; 45:6; 48 esp 48:8, 48:14; 66:7; 89-90 esp 89:30-35, 90:1-4; 93:2; 102 esp 102:11-12, 102:26-27; 103:17-18; 136; 145-146 esp 145:13, 146:10—(D) Psalms, 9:6-9; 9:16; 28:10; 32:10-11; 44:7; 47 esp 47:9, 47:15; 65:7; 88-89 esp 88:31-36, 89:1-4; 92:2; 101 esp 101:12-13, 101:27-28; 102:17-18; 135; 144-145 esp 144:13, 145:10 / Ecclesiastes, 3:14-15 / Isaiah, 40:8,28; 43:10-13; 57:15—(D) Isaias, 40:8,28; 43:10-13; 57:15 / Jeremiah, 10:10—(D) Jeremias, 10:10 / Lamentations, 5:19 / Daniel, 6:25-27 / Malachi, 3:6—(D) Malachias, 3:6
• Apocrypha: Ecclesiasticus, 36:17; 39:20; 42:21—(D) OT, Ecclesiasticus, 36:18-19; 39:25; 42:21-22
• New Testament: Matthew, 24:35 / John, 1:1-5 / Romans, 1:21-25; 6:23 / Colossians, 1:16-17 / I Timothy, 1:17 / Hebrews, 1:10-12; 7:23-28; 13:7-8 / James, 1:17 / I John, 5:11-12 / Revelation, 1:17-18; 10:6; 11:15-18—(D) Apocalypse, 1:17-18; 10:6; 11:15-18
• 5 Sophocles: Oedipus at Colonus [607–615] 120a
• 7 Plato: Republic, BK II, 322d-323c; 324a-b
• 8 Aristotle: Physics, BK VIII, CH 6 [258b10–259a31] 344b-345d / Heavens, BK I, CH 9 [279a23–b4] 370c-d; BK II, CH 3 [286a8–13] 377c / Generation and Corruption, BK II, CH 10 [337a15–23] 439a-b / Metaphysics, BK V, CH 5 [1015b9–16] 536a; BK XII, CH 6–7 601b-603b; CH 9 605a-d
• 9 Aristotle: Ethics, BK VII, CH 14 [1154b20–30] 406c
• 15 Tacitus: Histories, BK V, 296a
• 17 Plotinus: Third Ennead, TR VII, CH 1-6 119b-122d / Sixth Ennead, TR VIII, CH 18-21 351d-353d
• 18 Augustine: Confessions, BK I, par 10 3b-c; BK IV, par 26 25c-d; par 29 26b; BK VII, par 1-6 43b-45a; par 17-18 49a-b; par 23 50b-c; par 26, 51c; BK XII, par 11 101d; par 18 103a-c; BK XIII, par 44 122d / City of God, BK VII, CH 30 261b-d; BK VIII, CH 11, 272c; BK X, CH 1, 298b,d; BK XI, CH 10 327d-328d; CH 21-22 333a-334c; BK XII, CH 1-3 342b,d-344b; CH 14 350d-351b; CH 17 353a-354a / Christian Doctrine, BK I, CH 5 625d-626a; CH 8 626c-627a; CH 10 627b; CH 22-23 629b-630c
• 19 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART I, Q 2, A 3, ANS 12c-14a; Q 3, A 1, ANS and REP 4 14b-15b; QQ 9-10 38c-46d; Q 14, A 7 81d-82b; A 15 89b-90b; Q 18, A 3 106b-107c; Q 19, A 7 114d-115d; Q 26, A 1, REP 2 150b-c; Q 43, A 2, REP 2 230d-231c; Q 51, A 3, REP 3 277a-278c
• 20 Aquinas: Summa Theologica, PART II-II, Q 61, A 5, ANS 58b-59d; PART III, Q 1, A 1, REP 3 701d-703a; Q 2, A 1, ANS 710a-711c
• 21 Dante: Divine Comedy, PARADISE, XIII [52–84] 126a-b; XXIV [130–141] 144a; XXVII [1–78] 148d-149c; XXIX [13–36] 150b-c
• 22 Chaucer: Knight’s Tale [2994–3015] 209a-b
• 23 Hobbes: Leviathan, PART II, 173a
• 25 Montaigne: Essays, 292d-294b
• 31 Descartes: Discourse, PART IV, 52b-d / Meditations, III, 86a-87a; V 93a-96a esp 93d-95b / Objections and Replies, 228a-c; 229c-d
• 31 Spinoza: Ethics, PART I 355a-372d esp DEF 1 355a, DEF 3,6-7 355b, PROP 3 356a, PROP 5-8 356b-357d, PROP 11-15 358b-361d, PROP 17 362b-363c, PROP 19-20 363c-364a, PROP 33, SCHOL 1 367c-d, PROP 34 369a; PART V, PROP 17 456c-d
• 32 Milton: Paradise Lost, BK III [372–389] 143b-144a
• 33 Pascal: Pensées, 469 256a
• 34 Newton: Principles, BK III, GENERAL SCHOL, 370a-371a
• 35 Locke: Human Understanding, BK II, CH XVII, SECT 20 172d-173c; CH XXIII, SECT 21 209c
• 35 Berkeley: Human Knowledge, SECT 117 436a
• 42 Kant: Pure Reason, 175d-176c; 177b-179b; 190c; 192d; 201b-c / Practical Reason, 352a-b
• 46 Hegel: Philosophy of Right, PART III, par 270, 85c / Philosophy of History, PART II, 306a

CROSS-REFERENCES

• For: The broad philosophical context of the theory of change, see BEING 5; DESIRE 1; FORM 1-1b; MATTER 1-1b, 2b.
• The distinction between the mutable and the immutable, see ASTRONOMY 8a; BEING 7b(3); ELEMENT 5a; ETERNITY 4-4d; FORM 1a; TRUTH 5.
• The issue concerning time and eternity in relation to change, see ASTRONOMY 8c(1); ETERNITY 1; TIME 2, 2b; WORLD 4a.
• A discussion relevant to the theory of the prime mover, see ANGEL 2a.
• The mathematical and experimental approach to the study of local motion and the formulation of its laws, see ASTRONOMY 8c–8c(3); MECHANICS 5–5f(2), 6c-6e; ONE AND MANY 3a(2); QUANTITY 5c; SPACE 2a.
• The discussion of biological and psychological change, see ANIMAL 4a, 6b-7, 8b; CAUSE 2; DESIRE 2c–2d; EDUCATION 4, 5c, 6; EMOTION 1b, 2b; HABIT 4b; REASONING 1b; TIME 7; VIRTUE AND VICE 4b-4c.
• Other discussions of the distinction between generation and other kinds of change, see ART 2a; FORM 1d(2); WORLD 4e(1); and for the problem of the transmutation of the elements, see ELEMENT 3c.
• The theory of historical change in nature and society, see EVOLUTION 4d, 6a, 7c; HISTORY 4b; PROGRESS 1a, 1c-2; TIME 8a.
• The consideration of economic, political, and cultural change, see CONSTITUTION 7–7a, 8-8b; PROGRESS 3-4c, 6-6b; REVOLUTION 2-2c, 4-4b; WEALTH 12.
• The discussion of change or becoming as an object of knowledge, see BEING 8a-8b; KNOWLEDGE 6a(1); OPINION 1.
• Other considerations of man’s attitude toward change and mutability, see CUSTOM AND CONVENTION 8; PROGRESS 5; TIME 7.

ADDITIONAL READINGS

Listed below are works not included in Great Books of the Western World, but relevant to the idea and topics with which this chapter deals. These works are divided into two groups:

I. Works by authors represented in this collection.

• Aquinas. De Principiis Naturae
• Descartes. The Principles of Philosophy, PART II, 24-53
• Hobbes. Concerning Body, PART III, CH 15-16, 21-22
• Berkeley. Siris
• Kant. Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science
• Hegel. The Phenomenology of Mind, II
• —. Science of Logic, VOL I, BK I, SECT 1, CH 1(C)
• —. Logic, CH 7
• W. James. Some Problems of Philosophy, CH 9-10, 12

II. Works by authors not represented in this collection.

• Sextus Empiricus. Against the Physicists, BK I, CH 2, 5
• —. Outlines of Pyrrhonism, BK III, CH 1-20
• Crescas. Or Adonai, PROPOSITIONS 4-9, 13-14, 17, 25
• Suarez. Disputationes Metaphysicae, XVIII (11), XXX (8-9), XXXIX (8), XLVI (3), XLVIII-L
• John of Saint Thomas. Cursus Philosophicus Thomisticus, Philosophia Naturalis, PART I, QQ 14, 19, 22-24, PART III, QQ 1-2, 10-12
• Leibniz. Discourse on Metaphysics, XV-XXII
• —. Monadology, par 10-18
• Voltaire. “Motion,” in A Philosophical Dictionary
• Schopenhauer. The World as Will and Idea
• Whewell. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, VOL I, BK II, CH 13
• Helmholtz. Popular Lectures on Scientific Subjects, VII
• Maxwell. Matter and Motion
• Clifford. The Common Sense of the Exact Sciences, CH 5
• Lotze. Metaphysics, BK I, CH 4-5; BK II, CH 4
• Bradley. Appearance and Reality, BK I, CH 5
• Croce. History: Its Theory and Practice
• Bergson. Creative Evolution
• —. The Creative Mind, CH 5
• Heidegger. Sein und Zeit
• B. Russell. Principles of Mathematics, CH 54, 56-59
• —. The Analysis of Matter, CH 27, 33-34
• Eddington. The Nature of the Physical World, CH 5
• Dewey. Experience and Nature, CH 2
• —. The Quest for Certainty, CH 2
• Whitehead. The Concept of Nature, CH 5
• —. Process and Reality, PART II, CH 10
• Santayana. Scepticism and Animal Faith, CH 5
• —. The Realm of Matter, CH 5-6
• Reichenbach. Physics and Reality